Cited by 1,601Attachment and Relationship DynamicsFamily Dynamics and RelationshipsEvolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior

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Adult Romantic Attachment: Theoretical Developments, Emerging Controversies, and Unanswered Questions

Fraley, R. Chris, Shaver, Phillip R.·2000·Review of General Psychology

DOI 10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132

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Abstract

The authors review the theory of romantic, or pair-bond, attachment as it was originally formulated by C. Hazan and P. R. Shaver in 1987 and describe how it has evolved over more than a decade. In addition, they discuss 5 issues related to the theory that need further clarification: (a) the nature of attachment relationships, (b) the evolution and function of attachment in adulthood, (c) models of individual differences in attachment, (d) continuity and change in attachment security, and (e) the integration of attachment, sex, and caregiving. In discussing these issues, they provide leads for future research and outline a more complete theory of romantic attachment.

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Background
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Self-citation
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Background
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Background
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Stability of attachment styles across students’ romantic relationships, friendships and family relations
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Background
Mother–Daughter and Father–Daughter Attachment of College Student ACOAs
Kelley, M. L., French, A., Schroeder, V. M., Bountress, K. E., Fals-Stewart, W. S., Steer, K., & Cooke, C. G. (2008) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826080802240906 · Cited by 13
“Both the quality of the affective relationship (e.g., warmth, sensitivity) and the consistent support from parents are parent characteristics that often correlate with parent–child attachment (e.g., Fraley and Shaver, 2000).”
Background
Anxious and Hostile: Consequences of Anxious Adult Attachment in Predicting Male-Perpetrated Sexual Assault
Barbaro, N., Parkhill, M. R., & Nguyen, D. (2016) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515622301 · Cited by 10
“Adult attachment (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Fraley & Shaver, 2000; Shaver & Hazan, 1987) is suggested to regulate the ways in which individuals respond to distressing situations and times of interpersonal conflict (Bowlby, 1982; Pietromonaco & Barrett, 2000; see also Simpson & Belsky, 2008).”
Background
Preliminary validation of a romantic attachment orientation measure from the California Adult Q-Sort
Chopik, W. J., & Edelstein, R. S. (2015) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1091852 · Cited by 10
“The two-dimensional model of anxiety and avoidance has received both theoretical and empirical support as the dominant model underlying adult attachment orientations (Fraley & Shaver, 2000; Fraley & Waller, 1998).”
Background
Parental attachment and children's memory for attachment-relevant stories
Milojevich, H. M., & Quas, J. A. (2016) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2016.1140577 · Cited by 13
“…in the RQ and the labels we use refer to similar attachment representational tendencies (Alexander et al., 2002; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Fraley & Shaver, 2000). minute mildly challenging tasks (i.e., a brief social interview, a digit span task, an unfamiliar substance taste test, and…”
Associations of Attachment Anxiety and Avoidance With Male- and Female-Perpetrated Sexual Coercion in Romantic Relationships
Barbaro, N., Holub, A. M., & Shackelford, T. K. (2018) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/0886-6708.33.6.1176 · Cited by 14
Individual differences in interpersonal security predict suicidal ideation and problem gambling
Iliceto, P., Fino, E., Schiavella, M., & Candilera, G. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110031 · Cited by 11
Self‐esteem and caregiving in romantic relationships: Self‐ and partner perceptions
Knapp, D. J., Durtschi, J. A., Clifford, C. E., Kimmes, J. G., Barros-Gomes, P., & Sandberg, J. G. (2016) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12114 · Cited by 12
Relational Measures in Psychotherapy Research on Process and Outcome: A Commentary on the Studies
Gurtman, M. B. (2004) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8303_08 · Cited by 10
“For attachment styles, this second factor is often referred to as anxiety (e.g., Fraley & Shaver, 2000) or as “negative model of self” (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994).”
BackgroundMethod
Do insecure attachment styles predict prolonged grief symptoms? Significant null findings
Janshen, A., Boelen, P. A., Schut, H. A. W., & Eisma, M. C. (2024) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2023.2300063 · Cited by 12
“These map on the two attachment dimensions of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance (Fraley & Shaver, 2000).”
Attachment avoidance predicts limited and selective sharing of personal events in close relationships
Sun, R., & Jakubiak, B. K. (2024) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12537 · Cited by 12
Toward a definition of Attachment Trauma: integrating attachment and trauma studies
Zagaria, A., Baggio, T., Rodella, L., & Leto, K. (2024) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2024.100416 · Cited by 22
Childhood Maltreatment and Adolescent Eating Disorders’ Symptoms: A Moderated Mediation Model of Social Anxiety and Physical Activity
Li, S., Luo, X., Song, L., Gao, X., & Shen, Y. (2024) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s489186 · Cited by 11
“Lastly, this study was carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may potentially impact PA, ED symptoms, and SA, Thus, future research should more comprehensively consider the influence of pandemic factors on study outcomes and further explore this association.”
Influential
Attachment theory applied to the human-dog relationship
de Souza, M. C., Bastos, G. Q., & Tokumaru, R. S. (2025) · Journal of Veterinary Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2025.09.005 · Cited by 9
Tie-Up Cycles in Long-Term Mating. Part I: Theory
Basili, L. L., & Sacco, P. L. (2016) · Challenges · doi:10.3390/challe7010012 · Cited by 9
“One of the most critical aspects of AT, though, is that of postulating that all romantic or couple relationships can be interpreted in terms of attachment [64], with a potential risk of failing to adequately differentiate the attachment dimension, the sexual one, and that of actual care-giving.”
Background
Couple Adaptation to the Birth of a Child: The Roles of Attachment and Perfectionism
Gingras, A., Lessard, I., Mallette, F., Brassard, A., Bernier‐Jarry, A., Gosselin, P., & de Pierrepont, C. (2020) · Journal of Marital and Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/jmft.12453 · Cited by 9
Attachment as a framework to facilitate empowerment for people with severe mental illness
Tjaden, C. D., Mulder, C. L., Delespaul, P., Arntz, A. R., & Kroon, H. (2020) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12316 · Cited by 12
Attachment Style and Childhood Traumatic Experiences Moderate the Impact of Initial and Prolonged COVID-19 Pandemic: Mental Health Longitudinal Trajectories in a Sample of Italian Women
Castellini, G., Tarchi, L., Cassioli, E., Rossi, E., Sanfilippo, G., Innocenti, M., Gironi, V., Scami, I., & Ricca, V. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-022-00798-x · Cited by 13
“Adult attachment styles can be defined as patterns of interpersonal behaviors and relational expectations that originate from the internalization of the quality of the interactions with caregivers during infancy (Fraley & Shaver, 2000; Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002).”
Background
The Impact of Attachment Styles on Attitudes Toward Marriage: The Mediating Role of Emotional Intimacy
Park, C., & Harris, V. W. (2022) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/10664807221124271 · Cited by 9
“Studies have further conceptualized a twodimensional scheme or structure of adult attachment styles, with two primary dimensions: attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Fraley & Shaver, 2000; Hazan & Shaver, 1987).”
Background
Toward a preventive approach to prolonged grief disorder in palliative care: Insecure attachment moderates the impact of perceived support on the severity of symptoms
Lenzo, V., Sardella, A., Musetti, A., Faraone, C., & Quattropani, M. C. A. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0266289 · Cited by 9
“In the last decades, several studies have linked the quality of early attachment experiences with attachment relationships in adulthood [15, 16].”
Background
The role of developmental caregiving programming in modulating our affiliation tendency and the vulnerability to social anxiety and eating disorders
Gagliardi, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1259415 · Cited by 8
“Consistently – given its relevance throughout life and, in particular, in romantic relationships (Fraley and Shaver, 2000; Mikulincer and Shaver, 2016) – attachment must play a role in such a strategy.”
Background
A perspectiva evolucionista sobre relações românticas
Shiramizu, V. K. M., & Lopes, F. D. A. (2013) · Psicologia USP · doi:10.1590/s0103-65642013000100004 · Cited by 9
Women's Adult Romantic Attachment Style and Communication by Cell Phone with Romantic Partners
Weisskirch, R. S. (2012) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/21.02.20.pr0.111.4.281-288 · Cited by 9
Angel or demon? Self-monitoring differences in the mental representations of current versus former romantic partners
Leone, C. T., Gainey, L., & Moulder, R. G., Jr. (2016) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2016.1152292 · Cited by 9
“One such factor holds particular promise in this regard: attachment styles/dimensions. attachment styles involve working mental representations of the self and of others (fraley & Shaver, 2000).”
Background
Consumer Neoteny
Oliver, M. A. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/1474704916661825 · Cited by 10
Attachment with mother and adolescents’ conflict with romantic partner or close friend.
Ratto, N., Doyle, A., & Markiewicz, D. (2016) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/cbs0000031 · Cited by 12
(Eventual) stability and change across partnerships.
Johnson, M. D., & Neyer, F. J. (2019) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/fam0000523 · Cited by 11
Modeling cohesion change in group counseling: The role of client characteristics, group variables, and leader behaviors.
Tucker, J. R., Wade, N. G., Abraham, W. T., Bitman, R. L., Cornish, M. A., & Post, B. C. (2019) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000403 · Cited by 10
Positive Psychology Course: A Way to Improve Well-Being
Sarı, B. A., Turan, F., Metin, B., ERTAŞ, H. S., & Tarhan, N. (2020) · Journal of Education and Future · doi:10.30786/jef.591777 · Cited by 13
Intergenerational attachment orientations: Gender differences and environmental contribution
Zelekha, Y., & Yaakobi, E. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0233906 · Cited by 9
A Dyadic Perspective of Felt Security: Does Partners’ Security Buffer the Effects of Actors’ Insecurity on Daily Commitment?
Sasaki, E., & Overall, N. C. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17207411 · Cited by 9
“Unlike state feelings of security that fluctuate day-to-day, attachment anxiety represents relatively stable, trait insecurities entailing intense desires for love accompanied by doubts about the partners’ dependability, creating vigilant monitoring of felt security [18,22,23].”
BackgroundInfluential
Attachment Avoidance Moderates the Relationship Among Acceptance of Sugar Relationships, Motivation, and Self-Esteem
Ipolyi, D., Csányi, E., Láng, A., & Meskó, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.711199 · Cited by 10
Relational turbulence processes among avoidant and anxious spouses
Goodboy, A. K., Bolkan, S., & Shin, M. (2022) · Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01463373.2022.2054720 · Cited by 9
“…relationships, attachment anxiety is characterized by an intense desire for closeness due to the fear of abandonment or rejection, whereas attachment avoidance is characterized by a discomfort with interdependence and closeness due to viewing relationships as nonessential (Fraley & Shaver, 2000).”
Background
Give yourself a break: Self-compassion mediates insecure attachment and divorce maladjustment among Iranian women
Davarinejad, O., Ghasemi, A., Hall, S. S., Meyers, L. S., Shirzadifar, M., Shirzadi, M., Mehrabani, A., Rostami, T., & Shahi, H. (2022) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075221077971 · Cited by 8
“As mentioned in the literature review, some avoidant individuals arguably have a more artificially positive view of themselves driven by the need for self-reliance or to repress negative feelings (Fraley and Shaver, 2000;Wei et al., 2005), which may not be conducive to self-compassion.”
Attachment–style Differences in the Appraisal of the Attachment Figure
Dewitte, M. D., & Houwer, J. D. (2010) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.773 · Cited by 12
“25: 173–183 (2011) DOI: 10.1002/per the functional organisation of the attachment system (Fraley & Shaver, 1998, 2000).”
Influential
The Role of Social Ties in Explaining Heterogeneity in the Association Between Economic Growth and Subjective Well-Being
Böckerman, P., Laamanen, J.-P., & Palosaari, E. J. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9702-0 · Cited by 9
“…a large fraction of the population has a high relational ability (which can be operationalized as secure attachment style, see Introduction; also Fraley and Shaver 2000) because they derive their SWB more from mutually beneficial relationships or relational goods rather than from zero-sum…”
Background
Ebeveynlere Bağlanma ile Kişilik Özellikleri Arasındaki İlişki
Ulusoy, Y. Ö., AKFIRAT, O. N., & Tura, G. (2018) · Resilience · doi:10.32569/resilience.436910 · Cited by 9
Are We Missing the Circumplexity? An Examination of Love Styles
Cassepp‐Borges, V., & Ferrer, E. E. (2019) · Journal of Relationships Research · doi:10.1017/jrr.2019.13 · Cited by 9
Investigating Personal Intelligent Agents in Everyday Life through a Behavioral Lens
Moussawi, S. (2016) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) · Cited by 9
Parental attachment and internalizing and externalizing problems of Israeli school-goers and homeschoolers.
Guterman, O., & Neuman, A. (2020) · School Psychology · doi:10.1037/spq0000342 · Cited by 8
Attachment orientation and depression: A moderated mediation model of self-silencing and gender differences
Emran, A., Iqbal, N., & Dar, K. A. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640221074919 · Cited by 12
“In research, they are indicative of individual differences in attachment style which reflects the implications of one’s attachment history on relationships (Fraley & Shaver, 2000).”
Background
How Relationships Foster Growth: Compassionate Goals Predict Growth-Seeking Through Perceived Available Support Independent of Relationship Security
Jiang, T., Canevello, A., & Crocker, J. (2022) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672221080949 · Cited by 8
“The absence of relationship security can take two forms: relationship anxiety and avoidance (Brennan et al., 1998; Fraley & Shaver, 2000).”
Background

Authors: Fraley, R. C., & Shaver, P. R.
Affiliations: University of California, Davis (US)
ORCID: Fraley, R. Chris
Shaver, Phillip R.
Venue: Review of General Psychology
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2000-06
Volume: 4
Issue: 2
Pages: 132-154
ISSN: 1089-2680 (ISSN-L)
1939-1552
DOI: 10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132
OpenAlex: W2142842143
Cited by: 1,601
References: 138
Citations by year: 2026: 46 · 2025: 74 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 118 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 91 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 82 · 2013: 89 · 2012: 70
FWCI: 20.81
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Review of General Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Keywords: romantic attachment, attachment theory, adult attachment, attachment security, caregiving

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Adult Romantic Attachment: Theoretical Developments, Emerging Controversies, and Unanswered Questions

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