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Single-case intervention research: Methodological and statistical advances.
Abstract
Thanks to remarkable methodological and statistical advances in recent years, Single-Case design (SCD) research has become a viable and often essential option for researchers in applied psychology, education, and related fields. This text is a compendium of information and tools for researchers considering SCD research, a methodology in which one or several participants (or other units) comprise a systematically-controlled experimental intervention study. SCD is a highly flexible method of conducting applied intervention research where it is not feasible or practical to collect data from traditional groups of participants. Initial chapters lay out the key components of SCDs, from articulating dependent variables to documenting methods for achieving experimental control and selecting an appropriate design model. Subsequent chapters show when and how to implement SCDs in a variety of contexts and how to analyze and interpret results. Authors emphasize key design and analysis tactics, such as randomization, to help enhance the internal validity and scientific credibility of individual studies. This rich resource also includes in-depth descriptions of large-scale SCD research projects being undertaken at key institutions; practical suggestions from journal editors on how to get SCD research published; and detailed instructions for free, user-friendly, web-based randomization software.
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“As per Kratochwill and Levin, the onset of the ACT intervention was randomized across a 5- to 7-day period [60].”
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“We evaluated data for demonstrations of effect by analyzing six features: (a) level, (b) trend, (c) variability, (d) immediacy of effect, (e) overlap, and (f) consistency of patterns across similar phases (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
Weaver, E. S., & Lloyd, B. P. (2018) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-018-0165-6 · Cited by 13
Sadler, K. M. (2019) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/0162643418822070 · Cited by 11
“Each individual case was treated as the unit of intervention and data analysis (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
MethodNovel Randomization Tests for Two-Sample Multiple-Baseline Designs
Levin, J. R., Ferron, J. M., & Gafurov, B. S. (2022) · Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR) · doi:10.1080/10824669.2022.2045995 · Cited by 10
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“…well-known in the field of applied behavior analysis due to its rigorous investigation of causal relationships between interventions and outcomes with small sample sizes (Cooper et al., 2020; Kratochwill et al., 2010) where each participant serves as their own control (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
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“The MBD employed in this study consisted of randomly assigning students to dyads, as well as the order in which they would receive the wise feedback intervention, which improves methodological rigor and internal validity of the findings (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
MethodNonparametric meta-analysis for single-case research: Confidence intervals for combined effect sizes
Michiels, B., & Onghena, P. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1044-5 · Cited by 9
“…the calculation of various measures of effect size (ES; e.g., Burns, 2012; L. G. Hedges, Pustejovsky, & Shadish, 2012, 2013; Heyvaert et al., 2017; Kratochwill & Levin, 2014; Parker, Vannest, & Davis, 2011; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2013) and the use of multilevel models (e.g., Ferron, Bell, Hess,…”
Ray, D. C. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197650134.003.0010 · Cited by 9
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“SCD research has been widely used in areas such as special education, communication science and disorders (Byiers, Reichle, and Symonsa 2012) and school psychology (Kratochwill and Levin 2014; Kratochwill and Stoiber 2002).”
BackgroundMethodThe role of disengagement in the psychology of competence drift
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“…researchers generally agree that visual analysis should precede statistical analysis, and best practice suggests reporting both visual analysis and statistical outcomes including effect sizes (Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 2011; Kratochwill & Levin, 2014; Levin et al., 2019; Parker & Vannest, 2012).”
Levin, J. R., Ferron, J. M., & Gafurov, B. S. (2020) · Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods · doi:10.22237/jmasm/1556670480 · Cited by 7
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“Within single case studies it is recommended to analyse the measurement results by visual inspection of individual changes from pre-to post-intervention with reference to a pre-defined threshold (see below) [28].”
InfluentialLi, H. (2024) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-024-02464-7 · Cited by 7
“Traditionally, SCED researchers have relied on visual analysis to assess the functional relationship between treatments and outcomes (Kratochwill et al., 2014), with concerns about whether statistical analysis can capture all features of data series and/or yield reliable results given very small…”
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“Meta-analysis has been increasingly being applied to single-subject design as well [38].”
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“Longer baseline periods could help stabilise these measurements, ensuring a more reliable comparison between baseline and treatment phases (Kratochwill and Levin 2014), which should be considered in future iterations.”
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Interrupted Time Series Design
Ferron, J. M., & Rendina‐Gobioff, G. (2015) · Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online · doi:10.1002/9781118445112.stat06764.pub2 · Cited by 5
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“…case studies, are interrupted time-series designs in which researchers hope to identify the causal relationship between carefully administered interventions and selected outcome measures of interest typically on a small number of individuals (Kazdin, 2021a, 2021b; Kratochwill et al., 2014).”
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Fisher, W. W., Fuhrman, A. M., Greer, B. D., Ibañez, V. F., Peterson, K. M., & Piazza, C. C. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-90969-3.00007-4 · Cited by 4
A Comparison of Single-Case Effect Measures Using Check-In Check-Out Data
Peart, A. M., Drevon, D. D., & Jasper, A. D. (2024) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/01454455241233738 · Cited by 4
“However, Tau-U can control for monotonic trend, which is often an undesirable quality of data within single-case research (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
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Kellems, R. O., Sabey, C. V., Hansen, B. D., Frandsen, K., Clarke, B. M., & Simons, K. (2017) · Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s41252-017-0036-2 · Cited by 4
“Of the 24 graphs, 22 indicate an obvious change in level, trend, or variability, as well as an immediacy of effect, or some combination of these variables (Kratochwill and Levin 2014).”
BackgroundMethodSabey, C. V., Ross, S. W., & Goodman, J. (2020) · Educational Psychology in Practice · doi:10.1080/02667363.2019.1703650 · Cited by 4
The null hypothesis is always rejected with statistical tricks: Why do you need it?
Paniagua, F. A. (2019) · Revista Interamericana de Psicología/Interamerican Journal of Psychology · doi:10.30849/rip/ijp.v53i1.1166 · Cited by 4
“…would show significant problem behaviors during the baseline (A) condition but would behaviorally improve during the introduction of the treatment (e.g., a token economy program) during the B phase in a reversal experimental design (Hersen & Barlow, 1976; Kazdin, 1980; Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
Drew, S. V., Thomas, J. D., & Nagle, C. (2024) · Exceptionality · doi:10.1080/09362835.2024.2376527 · Cited by 3
“Quantitative data was collected in the form of a multiple baseline design across classes (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014) including 12 repeated quick write measures per student totaling 466 writing samples.”
InfluentialAssessing consistency of effects when applying multilevel models to single-case data
Manolov, R., & Ferron, J. M. (2020) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-020-01417-0 · Cited by 3
McInerney, M., Imms, C., Carding, P. N., & Reddihough, D. S. (2021) · Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications · doi:10.1016/j.conctc.2021.100872 · Cited by 3
“SCEDs are a useful alternative experimental design choice when evaluating intervention effectiveness [46,47].”
Single-case design and evaluation in R: An introduction and tutorial for school psychologists
McGill, R. J. (2016) · International Journal of School & Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/21683603.2016.1173610 · Cited by 3
“However, in a recently revised version of a popular edited volume on SCD methods and intervention research (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014), the use of R for data analysis was not discussed.”
MethodMcGill, R. J., Kennedy, K. S., & Busse, R. T. (2016) · Chapman University Digital Commons (Chapman University) · Cited by 3
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“According to Horner and Odom (36), single-case designs could potentially provide a minimum number of intervention effects (i.e., changes between the baseline and intervention periods) if only three series were implemented.”
BackgroundAcademic and behavior combined support: A single-case practice-based replication study
Gettinger, M., Kratochwill, T. R., Levin, J. R., et al. (2024) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101307 · Cited by 2
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“These studies have confirmed that people with cognitive disabilities have also set realistic objectives and plan and use cognitive strategies [40].”
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“design is also known as the basic time-series design and is quasi experimental, which means that no type of randomization was used and no replication of the baseline and intervention phases was scheduled in the design (Kratochwill and Levin, 2014; Kratochwill et al., 2010).”
BackgroundKanamota, P. F. D. C., Oliveira, A. C. F., Morais, W. L. D. S., Zamignani, D. R., Almeida, R. B. M. D., Ramos, A. C., Pantet, A., Oliveira, A. D. D., Andrade, L. M. D., Hayamizu, N., et al. (2019) · Perspectivas em Análise do Comportamento · doi:10.18761/pac.tac.2019.016 · Cited by 2
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“…of treatment effects across three independent conditions (e.g. participants), b) staggered length of baseline phase before the implementation of treatment, and c) a minimum of two data points per baseline phase and a minimum of five data points per treatment phase (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
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“One such approach is the single-subject design, which has gained popularity in special education because of its ability to accommodate individual variation while providing a detailed tracking of progress (Horner et al., 2005; Kratochwill & Levin, 2014; Lobo et al., 2017).”
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“The study was conducted using a case study approach (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014) describing each client’s behavioral problems before and after the intervention for three single cases.”
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“Specifically, 2.17 > Z > 1.64 indicates significance at the 0.05 level, Z � 2.17 indicates significance at the 0.01 level, and Z � 1.64 indicates no significant difference in changes between stages (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
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Craig, A. R., Boyle, M. A., Smith, S. W., & Sullivan, W. E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47343-2_7
Dinakaramani, S. (2024) · Gadjah Mada Journal of Professional Psychology (GamaJPP) · doi:10.22146/gamajpp.95294
Testing the efficacy of a single-session intervention to reduce work-related distress
Peterson, L., Friedlander, M. L., Moeyaert, M., Peterson, C., & Peterson, E. K. (2024) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2024.2440525
“Visual analysis, the recommended first step in the analysis of single-case design multiple-baseline data, provides an initial assessment of treatment effectiveness before statistical analyses are conducted (Kratochwill & Levin, 2014).”
Metadata
- Venue
- American Psychological Association eBooks
- Publisher
- American Psychological Association
- Published
- 2014
- OpenAlex
- W2302472531
- Cited by
- 223
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 5
- FWCI
- 33.83
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychological Association eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Research and Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Qualitative Comparative Analysis Research
- Keywords
- single-case experimental design, experimental control, randomization, internal validity, design model, dependent variables
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