The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience

In the paper

“More dramatically, interactions between the genome and the environment lead to changes in DNA methylation that allow these changes to be transmitted to the offspring of the rats who had been raised in stimulating environments, supporting the crucial role of epigenetic factors in brain and cognitive outcomes (Mychasiuk et al. 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mychasiuk et al. 2012

In the paper

“Beyond systemic environmental effects, engagement in particular activities can also modify brain and cognition in humans. These activities include music training (Lappe, Trainor, Herholz, & Pantev, 2011; Peretz & Zatorre, 2005; Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993), experience in spatial navigation (Maguire et al., 2000), extended engagement in action video game playing (Bavelier & Davidson, 2013; Green & B”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lappe, Trainor, Herholz, & Pantev, 2011; Peretz & Zatorre, 2005; Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993
• Not checked yetcites Maguire et al., 2000
• Not checked yetcites Bavelier & Davidson, 2013; Green & Bavelier, 2003; Karle, Watter, & Shedden, 2010; Riesenhuber, 2004

In the paper

“Joint activation requires that there is a mechanism for language selection to assure that use of the target language proceeds fluently.”

In the paper

“It is abundantly clear that the environment plays a crucial role in the brain and mental development of animals.”

In the paper

“Thus, the argument is that bilingualism is an experience that has the potential to modify brain and cognitive systems more generally, much as enriched cages do for rats and socioeconomic status does for young children.”

In the paper

“The position that will be advanced in the present review is that ultimately the best account will be one that is centered in the attention system (see discussion in Section 3.2).”

In the paper

“An account based on inhibition of the non-target language became the dominant explanation for bilingual effects on cognition (e.g., Bialystok et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok et al., 2009

In the paper

“Support for the notion that a domain-general system is recruited for language control comes from neuroimaging evidence showing overlap in brain networks involved in language selection and nonverbal task switching (Abutalebi & Green, 2007; De Baene, Duyck, Brass, & Carreiras, 2015; Luk, Green Abutalebi, & Grady, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Abutalebi & Green, 2007; De Baene, Duyck, Brass, & Carreiras, 2015; Luk, Green Abutalebi, & Grady, 2012

In the paper

“Together these studies demonstrate that the experience of learning a second language leaves structural traces in the brain in those regions responsible for language acquisition and use.”

In the paper

“Finally, language use is integrative; using language engages most of the brain, including frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, as well as some posterior regions (Friederici, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Friederici, 2011

In the paper

“Thus, their response is based on a coherent concept of a language system and not on an association to a particular language with which they are familiar.”

In the paper

“In an extensive review of the literature, Li, Legault, and Litcofsky (2014) describe the reliable differences in brain structure for both grey matter density and white matter integrity following even brief periods of second-language learning.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Li, Legault, and Litcofsky (2014)

In the paper

“No single explanation of the control mechanisms responsible for bilingual language processing and hence cognitive effects of bilingualism has emerged as decisive.”

In the paper

“The results again indicated priming from the repeated hand shape, even though it was irrelevant to the semantic judgment task.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Morford et al., 2011

In the paper

“This extensive involvement of brain centers increases the possibility that experience-related effects found for language use have the potential to generalize beyond language because the experience itself involves more than just language-specific processes.”

In the paper

“Language use is the most intense, sustained, and integrative experience in which humans engage.”

In the paper

“Three types of recent evidence converge on the conclusion that they do.”

In the paper

“Similarly, a study of 6-month-old infants engaged in a visual habituation task demonstrated better stimulus encoding and recognition memory by infants raised in bilingual environments than for their monolingually-raised counterparts (Singh et al., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Singh et al., 2015

In the paper

“For example, Schlegel et al. (2012) reported evidence from a 9-month longitudinal study of foreign language learning that found changes in white matter integrity in left hemisphere language areas and their right hemisphere analogs as well as in the frontal lobe over the course of the study.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Schlegel et al. (2012)

In the paper

“Thus, the bilingual mind must adapt to this mental configuration that includes jointly-activated languages in order for communication to proceed.”

In the paper

“To achieve fluent linguistic performance, therefore, bilinguals experience greater demands on a control system than do monolinguals, even when language production appears to be equivalent.”

In the paper

“The key point comes from overwhelming evidence that both languages in a bilingual’s repertoire are always active to some extent, even if one of them is not required for the current context.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Costa, Caramazza, & Sebastian-Galles, 2000; Costa, Santesteban, & Ivanova, 2006; Dijkstra, Grainger, & van Heuven, 1999; Hermans, Bongaerts, de Bot, & Schreuder, 1998
• Not checked yetcites Kroll, Dussias, Bice, and Perrotti (2015)

In the paper

“Together with the infant studies, these results cast doubt on the role of inhibition of a non-target language as a likely source of processing differences in bilinguals.”

In the paper

“To summarize, the majority of research with children based on tasks that are used in the investigation of executive functioning show that bilinguals generally perform better than comparable monolinguals.”

In the paper

“Together these findings suggest that early exposure to a bilingual environment promotes the earlier development of a flexible attention system.”

In the paper

“These studies are almost exclusively based on between-groups comparisons that require assumptions about the equivalence of the groups.”

In the paper

“The second is also a longitudinal study that studied children over a one-year period between 9- and 10-years old and showed that level of bilingualism predicted the increase in level of executive control within the same children (Riggs et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Riggs et al., 2014

In the paper

“The general finding is that bilingual children perform these tasks better than monolingual children, although there are exceptions that will be discussed.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Barac, Bialystok, Castro, & Sanchez, 2014
• Not checked yetcites Adesope, Lavin, Thompson, & Ungerleider, 2010

In the paper

“In two studies, bilingual children were able to do this with fewer cues than were monolingual children (Bialystok & Shapero, 2005; Wimmer & Marx, 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok & Shapero, 2005
• Not checked yetcites Wimmer & Marx, 2014

In the paper

“Moreover, evidence for bilingualism being the relevant factor comes from studies in which both bilingualism and country of origin are manipulated, as shown in the study by Yang et al. (2011) described in Section 2.1.2.1.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Yang et al. (2011)

In the paper

“These studies both included children over a 6-year age range from approximately 6- to 12-years old (possibly the same children in both studies reducing the independence of the contributions), and the unusually wide age range might be part of the reason that the results are different from those found in other studies.”

In the paper

“Several studies have demonstrated better performance in this task by bilingual children than by their monolingual peers (Bialystok, 1999; Bialystok & Martin, 2004; Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008; Kalashnikova & Mattock, 2014; Okanda, Moriguchi, & Itakura, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, 1999
• Not checked yetcites Bialystok & Martin, 2004
• Not checked yetcites Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008

In the paper

“It also challenges the notion that inhibition is a single factor in conceptions of the executive function.”

In the paper

“These studies examining detection of language switches, visual response to spatial position for reward, and memory generalization converge on the interpretation that in the first two years of life infants being raised in multilingual environments display different patterns of visual attention from those raised in monolingual homes.”

In the paper

“This dissociation in the response patterns between two types of tasks widely considered to be tests of inhibition casts doubt on the utility of the concept of inhibition as a mechanism for the bilingual effects on cognition.”

In the paper

“However, more recent research has reported these patterns in children as young as 2-years (Bialystok, Barac, Blaye, & Poulin-Dubois, 2010a; Poulin-Dubois, Blaye, Coutya, & Bialystok, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, Barac, Blaye, & Poulin-Dubois, 2010a
• Not checked yetcites Poulin-Dubois, Blaye, Coutya, & Bialystok, 2011

In the paper

“Finally, a study of children in immersion education programs also indicated that performance on executive function tasks from about 7- to 10-years old was predicted by their degree of bilingualism (Bialystok & Barac, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok & Barac, 2012

In the paper

“Four studies have taken a different approach and examined the relation between bilingualism and executive function performance within the same children as a function of their level of bilingualism.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Crivello et al., 2016
• Not checked yetcites Riggs et al., 2014
• Not checked yetcites Thomas-Sunesson, Hakuta, & Bialystok, in press

In the paper

“The first is a longitudinal study that tested children at 24 months and 31 months and found that children who became more bilingual over this period showed the largest advantage over monolingual children performing a battery of executive function tasks at 31 months (Crivello et al., 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Crivello et al., 2016

In the paper

“Some studies using these tasks have not found these effects. Carlson and Meltzoff (2008) tested 6-year-olds who were monolingual, bilingual, or attending a language immersion program and found no significant difference in performance on the flanker task, although they did show better bilingual performance on other conflict tasks in their battery. Two studies by another group also failed to find”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Carlson and Meltzoff (2008)
• Not checked yetcites Anton et al., 2014
• Not checked yetcites Dunabeitia et al., 2014

In the paper

“Ressel et al. (2012) examined grey matter density in Heschl's gyrus, a region involved in auditory and linguistic processing, for monolingual (Spanish) and bilingual (Spanish-Catalan) young adults. The results showed significantly greater volume in the bilinguals than in the monolinguals.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ressel et al. (2012)

In the paper

“They found differences in grey matter volume in many of the regions discussed above, including left middle-anterior cingulate gyrus and the inferior parietal gyrus, but in this case, the density was lower for the interpreters than for the bilinguals.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Elmer et al. (2014)

In the paper

“Thus, monolinguals and bilinguals performing simple executive function tasks engage different brain regions or networks and importantly, these differences were closely tied to cognitive functions that have been predicted to be affected by bilingualism.”

In the paper

“However, even with the notable counterexamples, there is a compelling consistency in which brain regions that are involved in language processing and attention to language systems are modified by bilingualism.”

In the paper

“Mamiya, Richards, Coe, Eichler, and Kuhl (in press) reported a correlation between higher FA values in the superior longitudinal fasciculus and length of time spent in a language immersion program for Chinese students learning English.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mamiya, Richards, Coe, Eichler, and Kuhl (in press)

In the paper

“In general, outcomes from neuroimaging that show greater structural density in bilinguals or functional patterns in bilingual children that resemble those obtained from older children or adults are evidence for better brain development in bilinguals.”

In the paper

“However, many studies do not show these effects, especially for young adults.”

In the paper

“Neuroimaging data from monolingual and bilingual children are limited, but the studies that exist show differences in both structural and functional measures.”

In the paper

“A study by Olsen et al. (2015) found no significant difference between monolingual and bilingual older adults in the anterior temporal pole”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Olsen et al. (2015)

In the paper

“a study by Olsen et al. (2015) examining white matter volume (rather than FA) found that bilinguals had greater frontal lobe white matter than did monolinguals, supporting claims for better frontal functioning in bilinguals.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Olsen et al. (2015)

In the paper

“Abutalebi et al. (2014) reported that bilinguals showed better preserved grey matter density than comparable monolinguals in the anterior temporal pole, a region important for conceptualization.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Abutalebi et al. (2014)

In the paper

“Similar results were reported by Pliatsikis, Moschopoulou, and Saddy (2015) for young adults, with higher FA found across the corpus callosum extending to inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus and the superior longitudinal fasciculi.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pliatsikis, Moschopoulou, and Saddy (2015)

In the paper

“For white matter, bilinguals generally show better integrity in several tracts, notably those involved with inter-hemisphere connectivity and anterior to medial tracts.”

In the paper

“Unlike evidence from behavioral studies, neuroimaging studies comparing monolingual and bilingual adults routinely report group differences in brain structure and function.”

In the paper

“In fact, white matter volume in the frontal lobe was positively related to performance on a Stroop task.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Olsen et al. (2015)

In the paper

“Frontal regions are plausible candidates for neuroplastic changes from bilingualism because of the role of the frontal lobe in the controlled processing in which bilinguals typically excel.”

In the paper

“The results of the Abutalebi et al. and Olsen et al. studies are consistent with the interpretation that bilingualism offers protection against loss of grey matter volume in frontal regions with aging.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Abutalebi et al.
• Not checked yetcites Olsen et al.

In the paper

“The ERP results from these studies provide substantial evidence for better bilingual processing in specific components of these tasks that are related to general attention or executive function.”

In the paper

“By controlling for performance, brain differences can be interpreted in terms of processing efficiency (e.g., Abutalebi et al., 2012; Gold et al., 2013a), something not possible if both brain function and behavioral performance are different.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Abutalebi et al., 2012
• Not checked yetcites Gold et al., 2013a

In the paper

“In both age groups, bilinguals showed decreased activation in the left frontal and cingulate cortex (cf., Abutalebi et al., 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gold et al. (2013a)

In the paper

“Garcia-Penton et al. (2015) also found better white matter connectivity in bilingual young adults than monolinguals in similar regions, but this time in tracts in the left hemisphere.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Garcia-Penton et al. (2015)

In the paper

“Some studies have shown moderating influences of age of acquisition of a second language, proficiency in the second language, and other such factors, leading to a more complex view.”

In the paper

“The summary of the research with infants and children is that the development of abilities broadly associated with executive functioning is more precocious in bilingual children than in their monolingual counterparts.”

In the paper

“These studies show that both younger and older bilinguals generally outperform monolinguals on a range of tasks that fall broadly within the category of executive function.”

In the paper

“The first of these was conducted by Luk et al. (2011) with older adults (70 years old) and found higher fractional anisotropy (FA) in bilinguals than monolingual in tracts across the corpus callosum and extending to the superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculi.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Luk et al. (2011)

In the paper

“A study by Alladi et al. (2013) conducted in India that included all levels of socioeconomic circumstances and education replicated the 4.5 year delay in symptoms of dementia initially reported by Bialystok et al. (2007).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Alladi et al. (2013)
• Not checked yetcites Bialystok et al. (2007)

In the paper

“It has long been known that cognitive decline with aging and dementia can be modulated by stimulating experiences, a concept known as cognitive reserve (Stern, 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Stern, 2002

In the paper

“Second, most of the studies found that in performing nonverbal executive function tasks, bilinguals recruited networks or regions that overlapped with those used in language processing.”

In the paper

“Gold, Johnson, and Powell (2013b) tested monolingual and bilingual healthy older adults (~65 years old) and found lower FA in the bilinguals in the inferior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, the fornix, and multiple portions of the corpus callosum, precisely the tracts in which bilinguals had shown higher FA in other studies.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gold, Johnson, and Powell (2013b)

In the paper

“Although not surprising, the results confirm that there are pervasive effects of bilingual experience on brain structure, even in areas well removed from centers involved in cognitive control.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ressel et al. (2012)

In the paper

“the grey matter volume of this region was significantly negatively correlated with age for monolinguals but not for bilinguals; in other words, there was a decline in grey matter density with age only for the monolinguals.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Olsen et al. (2015)

In the paper

“but the evidence clearly indicates increased white matter structure in bilinguals.”

In the paper

“This dissociation between brain structure and cognitive level is the signature of cognitive reserve.”

In the paper

“Research showing widespread facilitation and interference effects of the non-target language on processing in the target language were found for such tasks as picture naming (e.g., Costa et al., 2000) and lexical decision (Bijeljac-Babic, Biardeau, & Grainger, 1995; Duyck et al., 2007), making language inhibition unlikely.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Costa et al., 2000
• Not checked yetcites Bijeljac-Babic, Biardeau, & Grainger, 1995
• Not checked yetcites Duyck et al., 2007

In the paper

“Thus, converging evidence from cognitive development in childhood, language processing in bilinguals, and executive function in adults supported the interpretation that inhibition was central to understanding the effect of bilingualism on cognition.”

In the paper

“Cognitive change is evident before productive language is established.”

In the paper

“Miyake and colleagues (2000) reported in their original study that these intercorrelations were low, so it would be surprising if they became robust when applied to research on bilingualism.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miyake and colleagues (2000)

In the paper

“The accumulation of empirical evidence and recent theorizing has cast doubt on all three sources of evidence outlined above for the inhibition interpretation.”

In the paper

“but the assumption that inhibition was the primary mechanism seems inaccurate.”

In the paper

“Finally, as Paap and colleagues frequently noted (e.g., Paap & Greenberg, 2013), there was little correlation across various executive function tasks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Paap & Greenberg, 2013

In the paper

“it became clear that it was precisely this separation of word and meaning that was more advanced in bilingual children (review in Bialystok, 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, 2001

In the paper

“The P600 amplitude is heavily influenced by syntactic violations, with greater violations leading to enhanced P600 amplitudes (Friederici, Pfeifer, & Hahne, 1993).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Friederici, Pfeifer, & Hahne, 1993

In the paper

“However, an analysis of brain atrophy showed significantly more deterioration in the medial temporal region, particularly hippocampus, for the bilinguals than the monolinguals, in spite of comparable behavioral measures.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Schweizer et al. (2012)

In the paper

“A similar pattern was later found with adults where the measure was not accuracy, for which everyone was at ceiling, but ERP showing a smaller P600 for bilinguals in the grammatical but silly sentences (Moreno, Bialystok, Wodniecka, & Alain, 2010).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Moreno, Bialystok, Wodniecka, & Alain, 2010

In the paper

“Overall, the inhibition model provides a poor fit to the patterns of results obtained from research on bilingualism.”

In the paper

“but the cognitive reserve imparted by bilingualism should contribute to post-stroke recovery.”

In the paper

“More importantly, recent work on this model has eliminated inhibition entirely as a source of unique variance (Miyake & Friedman, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miyake & Friedman, 2012

In the paper

“Yet, studies with children in the first year of life (Kovacs & Mehler, 2009a) and pre-school toddlers (Bialystok et al., 2010a) both found significant differences in the way in which monolingual and bilingual children performed nonverbal conflict tasks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kovacs & Mehler, 2009a
• Not checked yetcites Bialystok et al., 2010a

In the paper

“Since the sentences were in fact grammatically correct, a smaller P600 is appropriate.”

In the paper

“At the very least, there is a deactivation of the non-target language that reduces access (see for example, Linck, Kroll, & Sunderman, 2009), but the assumption that inhibition was the primary mechanism seems inaccurate.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Linck, Kroll, & Sunderman, 2009

In the paper

“Simple tasks, such as the flanker task, that are generally acknowledged to involve executive control were often performed equivalently by monolingual and bilingual young adults.”

In the paper

“For this reason, we should not expect incidence studies to reveal protective effects of bilingualism.”

In the paper

“Third, the research with adults did not conform to the predictions from the explanatory framework based on the Miyake model in three crucial aspects.”

In the paper

“A small number of incidence studies has investigated the role of bilingualism in defraying the likelihood of dementia but with few exceptions (e.g., Wilson et al., 2015), no significant effects have been found (Crane et al., 2009, 2010; Hack et al., 2012; Ljungberg, Hansson, Adolfsson, & Nilsson, 2016; Sanders et al., 2012; Zahodne, Schofield, Farrell, Stern, & Manly, 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wilson et al., 2015
• Not checked yetcites Crane et al., 2009, 2010; Hack et al., 2012; Ljungberg, Hansson, Adolfsson, & Nilsson, 2016; Sanders et al., 2012; Zahodne, Schofield, Farrell, Stern, & Manly, 2014

In the paper

“However, the majority of the studies that reported group differences on these tasks found them equally in both trial types (Hilchey & Klein, 2011), again challenging inhibition as a likely explanation.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hilchey & Klein, 2011

In the paper

“Something about bilingual environments or bilingual experience accelerates the development and maintenance of attention.”

In the paper

“would have difficulty accounting for the dose-related effects found in the literature (e.g., Bogulski, Rakoczy, Goodman & Bialystok, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bogulski, Rakoczy, Goodman & Bialystok, 2015

In the paper

“Monitoring of attention, specifically for the purpose of conflict detection, therefore, is compatible with behavioral and brain evidence from bilingualism research.”

In the paper

“In both studies, bilingual participants with ADHD showed significant deficits compared to the other groups, suggesting that an attention disorder not only prevents bilingualism from boosting performance but possibly also adds to the burden of the disorder (note however there were no monolinguals in the Mor et al., 2015 study).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok et al., in press
• Not checked yetcites Mor et al., 2015

In the paper

“In the first year of life, infants in bilingual environments demonstrate better control over simple visual attention than infants in monolingual environments.”

In the paper

“but studies with adults reported no difference between Italian-Venetian bidialectics and monolingual Italian speakers (Scaltritti et al., 2015)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Scaltritti et al., 2015

In the paper

“These results suggest some underlying commonality between processes involved in attention and processes affected by bilingualism.”

In the paper

“Abutalebi et al. (2015) investigated increases in grey matter density in the inferior parietal lobule in bilingual older adults and reported greater changes for bilinguals who spoke similar languages (Cantonese and Mandarin) than for those who spoke unrelated languages (Cantonese and English).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Abutalebi et al. (2015)

In the paper

“A few recent studies have provided support for these ideas (Hartanto & Yang, 2016; Yang, Hartanto, & Yang, 2016; Verreyt, Woumans, Vandelanotte, Szmalec, & Duyck, 2015), but final judgment on this model awaits further research.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hartanto & Yang, 2016
• Not checked yetcites Yang, Hartanto, & Yang, 2016
• Not checked yetcites Verreyt, Woumans, Vandelanotte, Szmalec, & Duyck, 2015

In the paper

“For example, Engel de Abreu et al. (2012) reported a study with 8-year-olds in which both monolingual and bilingual children were from very low socioeconomic backgrounds and again, bilingual children outperformed monolinguals on this task.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Engel de Abreu et al. (2012)

In the paper

“Instead, the interpretation is that bilingualism involves an adaptation in which cognitive and brain systems used in both linguistic and non-linguistic activities are modified as a consequence of being involved in those activities.”

In the paper

“The calibration of the size of effect to the degree of bilingualism is consistent with experience-related plasticity.”

In the paper

“These two features make working memory capacity a construct that is compatible with the evidence found across the lifespan for bilingualism-dependent plasticity.”

In the paper

“Harrison et al. (2013), for example, showed that intense training in working memory capacity, especially through the use of complex tasks rather than simple training tasks, improved performance on tasks described as near-transfer or moderate-transfer memory tasks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Harrison et al. (2013)

In the paper

“These interactional contexts – single language, dual language, and dense code-switching – place different demands on brain and cognitive systems by requiring different degrees and types of language switching.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Green and Abutalebi (2013)

In the paper

“Their measure of far transfer was an assessment of fluid intelligence, but in spite of being correlated (Engle, Laughlin, Tuholski, & Conway, 1999), no amount of training led to increased scores on fluid intelligence tests.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Harrison et al. (2013)

In the paper

“In all cases, participants who were more bilingual outperformed those who were less bilingual on both behavioral and brain outcomes.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok & Barac, 2012
• Not checked yetcites Sorge et al., in press
• Not checked yetcites Goral et al., Spiro, 2015

In the paper

“bidialectic children who spoke Cypriot Greek and standard Greek outperformed monolingual Greek-speaking children (Antoniou et al., 2016)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Antoniou et al., 2016

In the paper

“Those studies examined performance within a specific socioeconomic range, but research that has simultaneously examined both bilingualism and socioecomonic status has found independent effects for both (Calvo & Bialystok, 2014; Krizman, Skoe, & Kraus, 2016.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Calvo & Bialystok, 2014
• Not checked yetcites Krizman, Skoe, & Kraus, 2016

In the paper

“so comparisons between groups that are not in fact monolingual and bilingual will produce noise or null results (see discussion in Bialystok, in press).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, in press

In the paper

“Similarly, not all tasks recruit processes that are expected to be impacted by bilingualism”