The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience

In the paper

“These studies have shown, for example, that rats reared in stimulating environments have greater cortical density (Rosenzweig, Krech, Bennett, & Diamond, 1962) and perform better in learning tasks (Petrosini et al., 2009) than rats raised in standard lab cages.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rosenzweig, Krech, Bennett, & Diamond, 1962
• Not checked yetcites Petrosini et al., 2009

In the paper

“A transformational change in cognitive neuroscience in recent decades has come from widespread evidence for lifelong experience-related neuroplasticity and its role in understanding brain and cognitive systems (Pascual-Leone, Amedi, Fregni, & Merabet, 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pascual-Leone, Amedi, Fregni, & Merabet, 2005

In the paper

“In the Adaptive Control Hypothesis, they identified eight control processes (goal maintenance, conflict monitoring, interference suppression, salient cue detection, selective response inhibition, task disengagement, task engagement, and opportunistic planning) that are differentially recruited as a function of the type of interactional context for language use.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Green and Abutalebi (2013)

In the paper

“Corroborating these results Pons, Bosch, and Lewkowicz (2015) used eye-tracking to show that from 8- to 12- months old, bilingually-raised infants pay more attention to the mouth of a talking face than the eyes whereas monolingually-raised babies generally pay more attention to the eyes.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Pons, Bosch, and Lewkowicz (2015)

In the paper

“Thus, the Chinese-English bilinguals were unconsciously influenced by their knowledge of Chinese, even though Chinese was irrelevant to this task.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Thierry and Wu (2007)

In the paper

“The implication was that these inhibitory processes were modified by their use in language selection and thus affected inhibitory control in other domains.”

In the paper

“Their model proposed three subcomponents of executive function, one of which was inhibition (see discussion in Section 3.1).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miyake et al., 2000

In the paper

“For adults, formal education has been shown to affect both brain structure and cognitive level, especially in terms of slowing the cognitive decline with aging (Kramer, Bherer, Colcombe, Dong, & Greenough, 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kramer, Bherer, Colcombe, Dong, & Greenough, 2004

In the paper

“Joint activation means there is constant competition for selection, so bilinguals must control attention to language representations and language processing in a way not required for monolinguals.”

In the paper

“If the network recruited to manage attention to the two languages is part of a nonverbal attention or selection system, then the configuration is in place for bilingualism to impact the nature or quality of nonverbal cognitive processing and presumably the brain regions on which it is based.”

In the paper

“Other studies have found increased grey matter density in the left inferior parietal region, a primary center for language processing, was positively correlated to the participant’s degree of bilingualism (Mecchelli et al., 2004) and increased with the time spent in a 5-month foreign language class in a longitudinal study (Stein et al., 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mecchelli et al., 2004
• Not checked yetcites Stein et al., 2012

In the paper

“The model described three such contexts – single language, dual language, and dense code-switching – each of which makes different demands on selection.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Green and Abutalebi (2013)

In the paper

“In his model, a supervisory attention system was guided by top-down cues that led to the inhibition of the non-target language so that language processing could proceed from the contextually- and linguistically-appropriate representations.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Green (1998)

In the paper

“Again, this cross-language information was wholly irrelevant to performance, but Russian-English bilinguals made initial eye movements to the cross-language distractor.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Marian and Spivey (2003)

In the paper

“Primary among these is socioeconomic status, where impoverished environments affect a variety of cognitive systems as well as brain volume and structure (Noble, Houston, Kan & Sowell, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Noble, Houston, Kan & Sowell, 2012

In the paper

“What is clear at this time is that the bilingual mind is characterized by joint activation of the two languages and so requires selection to avoid interference from an unwanted language.”

In the paper

“As with the ability to hear phonetic contrasts, monolingual infants can detect such changes until about 7 months old, but evidence from infants watching silent videos shows that bilingual infants continue to be able to notice when a speaker switches languages on the basis of these visual cues up to one year old.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Weikum et al., 2007
• Not checked yetcites Sebastian-Galles, Albareda-Castellot, Weikum, & Werker, 2012

In the paper

“However, the present argument goes beyond these linguistic consequences and suggests that the experience of bilingual language use leads to modifications not only in brain structure and function associated with language processing, but also in those regions and processes involved in nonverbal cognitive performance.”

In the paper

“Similarly, rats reared in social groups show more hippocampal neurogenesis and better learning than rats reared in isolation (Lua et al., 2003).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lua et al., 2003

In the paper

“A recent study by Ayneto and Sebastian-Galles (in press) showed that this bias for focusing on the mouth by bilingual children extends beyond linguistic information and also characterized attention to adult faces displaying emotional states; 8-month old bilingual infants focused on the mouth more than monolingual infants but by 12 months this difference was no longer found.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ayneto and Sebastian-Galles (in press)

In the paper

“Two studies by Kovacs and Mehler showed that bilingually-raised infants at 7-months (2009a) and 12-months old (2009b) were able to override a habitual response to look to one side to receive a visual reward (dancing clown) and replace it with an eye movement to the opposite side when the position of the reward changed. Infants raised in monolingual environments continued to look to the original”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kovacs and Mehler (2009a)
• Not checked yetcites Kovacs and Mehler (2009b)

In the paper

“At this point, however, research supporting the claims from this model is extremely preliminary, a point the authors fully acknowledge, so a thorough evaluation must await further study.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Green and Abutalebi (2013)

In the paper

“Without such control, there would be the constant risk of intrusion from the non-target language, something that rarely occurs.”

In the paper

“Although most of the research discussed in the review reports some relation between bilingualism and cognitive or brain outcomes, several areas of research, notably behavioral studies with young adults, largely fail to show these effects.”

In the paper

“The flanker and Simon tasks are generally considered to be assessments of inhibition, but other tasks that measure a different aspect of inhibition show different results.”

In the paper

“Bilingual children perform this task better than monolinguals at 5-years old (Martin-Rhee & Bialystok, 2008), 5½-years old (Morales, Calvo & Bialystok, 2013), 6-years old (Bialystok, Martin, & Viswanathan, 2005a), 7-years old (Poarch & Van Hell, 2012), and 5–9 year olds who varied in their degree of bilingualism (second-language proficiency) with more bilingualism associated with better”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Martin-Rhee & Bialystok, 2008
• Not checked yetcites Morales, Calvo & Bialystok, 2013
• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, Martin, & Viswanathan, 2005a

In the paper

“There is no doubt that factors such as culture, national origin, and language affect performance on these tasks for children, but bilingualism appears to be independent of those influences.”

In the paper

“They found better performance by monolinguals and English-dominant participants, although only for some of the comparisons.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gathercole et al. (2014)

In the paper

“What is different about these tasks from those described in the previous section is that none of them is associated with a specific sub-process of executive function, such as inhibition, but rather each has a more diffuse dependence on a set of processes that are part of the general ability to control attention and integrate information from different sources.”

In the paper

“There are a few studies that show no differences between groups but three of those studies examine an unusually large age range without convincing control over the role of age in performance.”

In the paper

“In an early study with this task, Yang, Yang and Lust (2011) presented the children’s ANT to 4½-year-olds who were bilingual English-Korean children in the US and compared their performance to monolingual English speakers in the US and monolingual Korean speakers in both the US and Korea. The bilingual children outperformed the two monolingual groups on both speed and accuracy.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Yang, Yang and Lust (2011)
• Not checked yetcites Yoshida, Tran, Benitez, and Kuwabara (2011)
• Not checked yetcites Kapa and Colombo (2013)

In the paper

“Bialystok et al. (2010a) included monolingual English-speaking children from Canada, monolingual French-speaking children from France, and bilingual children in Canada who spoke English plus a variety of other languages. Again, the two monolingual groups performed equivalently and the bilingual group outperformed both monolingual groups on a variety of executive function tasks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok et al. (2010a)

In the paper

“In the flanker and Simon tasks, inhibition is in the requirement to avoid attending to a distracting cue, but for another group of executive function, inhibition is in the requirement to suppress a prepotent response and for these tasks, the results are different.”

In the paper

“Thus across all these experiments, bilingual infants showed greater memory generalization than monolingual infants, with no other differences between groups.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brito & Barr, 2014
• Not checked yetcites Brito & Barr, 2012
• Not checked yetcites Brito, Sebastian-Galles, & Barr, 2015

In the paper

“Studies that are based on response inhibition (e.g., go/no-go task) rather than conflict resolution (e.g., flanker task) generally show no difference between groups even though both processes are considered to be measures of inhibition.”

In the paper

“Lee and Kim (2011) reported better scores from bilingual children than monolinguals on a standard test of creativity, Adi-Japha, Berberich-Artzi, & Libnawi, (2010) demonstrated more flexibility in a task requiring children to draw an “impossible” object, and Greenberg, Bellana, and Bialystok (2013) found better ability for bilingual than monolingual children to take the perspective of an observer”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lee and Kim (2011)
• Not checked yetcites Adi-Japha, Berberich-Artzi, & Libnawi, (2010)
• Not checked yetcites Greenberg, Bellana, and Bialystok (2013)

In the paper

“Bialystok and Viswanathan (2009) included bilingual children in Canada, bilingual children in India, and monolingual English-speaking children in Canada. This time, the two bilingual groups performed similarly and outperformed the monolingual group.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok and Viswanathan (2009)

In the paper

“Third, in a sample of low socioeconomic status bilingual children who were 8- to 10-years old, degree of bilingualism predicted performance on executive function tasks with no contributing prediction from any other background variable (Thomas-Sunesson, Hakuta, & Bialystok, in press).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Thomas-Sunesson, Hakuta, & Bialystok, in press

In the paper

“Uniformly, these exceptions are cases in which children in the two language groups did not differ from each other; no studies have reported cases in which bilingualism creates a disadvantage for children.”

In the paper

“Using fMRI and a flanker task, Luk et al. (2010) reported different networks of activation for monolinguals and bilingual for incongruent (but not congruent) trials, with bilinguals relying more on frontal and subcortical regions and monolinguals on temporal and parietal networks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Luk et al. (2010)

In the paper

“For the age at which families first became aware of symptoms of dementia, the mean age was 71.4 years for monolinguals and 75.5 years for bilinguals, a difference that was highly significant.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, Craik & Freedman, 2007

In the paper

“Also using a flanker task, Abutalebi et al. (2012) found the dorsal ACC to be important for conflict resolution in both groups, but for the bilinguals, less activation of this region was associated with better performance, a difference they interpreted as efficiency that comes from experience in language switching which also relies on the ACC.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Abutalebi et al. (2012)

In the paper

“The results showed that grey matter density in this same region in the LIPG was positively correlated with proficiency in the second language and negatively correlated with age of acquisition of the second language.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mechelli et al. (2004)

In the paper

“For grey matter, there is convergence on the finding that bilingualism and second language learning are associated with greater density in parietal and frontal regions, with some results also showing changes in the basal ganglia.”

In the paper

“Taking the flanker task as an example, the mean RT, including congruent and incongruent conditions, is about 500 ms, a response time that is difficult to improve through engagement in a stimulating experience. The mean RT for both children and older adults is typically longer than those for young adults allowing more room for individual differences related to a group experience to influence the”

In the paper

“They found that grey matter density was significantly greater for bilinguals than monolinguals in the left inferior parietal gyrus (LIPG), with larger effects for early bilinguals and for contrasts in the left hemisphere.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mechelli et al. (2004)

In the paper

“Considering instead the age at which the formal consensual diagnosis of dementia was made by the medical team, the mean age was 75.4 years for monolinguals and 78.6 years for bilinguals, a difference that was also highly significant.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, Craik & Freedman, 2007

In the paper

“The LIPG has been described as being involved in linguistic access and fluency (Poline et al., 1996), mediation of attention (Elmer, Meyer, Marrama, & Jancke, 2011), and working memory (Buchsbaum et al., 2005), and as Elmer, Hanggi, and Jancke (2014) point out, was identified long ago by Pötzl in 1925 as being the “language talent area” (cited by Elmer et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Poline et al., 1996
• Not checked yetcites Elmer, Meyer, Marrama, & Jancke, 2011
• Not checked yetcites Buchsbaum et al., 2005

In the paper

“Thus, for both grey and white matter measurements, the bilinguals in this study had less intact brain structure than previously found although both groups performed similarly on a battery of cognitive tests.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gold et al. (2013b)

In the paper

“Bialystok et al. (2005b) administered a Simon task while MEG was recorded. Faster reaction time for bilinguals was associated with greater activation in left cingulate and frontal regions, whereas faster reaction time for monolinguals was associated with activation in middle frontal regions, indicating differences in how the task was performed.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok et al. (2005b)

In the paper

“These studies support its role in acquiring a second language and changing a fundamental structural region of the brain for bilinguals that is involved in essential cognitive processes.”

In the paper

“The bilinguals had significantly higher connectivity in these two networks than the monolinguals, with no differences in a number of networks not involved in executive function that were investigated as a control measure.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Grady, Luk, Craik, & Bialystok, 2015

In the paper

“Bilingualism, therefore, is only one factor in the complex set of activities, experiences, and biology that impact the expression of symptoms of neurodegenerative disease, but it is a factor that is consistent across a variety of contexts.”

In the paper

“The evidence points to bilingualism as a means of postponing symptoms of dementia without avoiding the disease (Gold, in press).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gold, in press

In the paper

“In several studies, bilingual children outperformed monolingual children on the former but not the latter (e.g., Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008; Engel de Abreu et al., 2012; Foy & Mann, 2014; Martin-Rhee & Bialystok, 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008
• Not checked yetcites Engel de Abreu et al., 2012
• Not checked yetcites Foy & Mann, 2014

In the paper

“These results, however, were more precarious than those found for children and sometimes were not found for young adults (e.g., Bialystok et al., 2005a; Paap & Greenberg, 2013) or emerged only for the most complex conditions (e.g., Costa et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok et al., 2005a
• Not checked yetcites Paap & Greenberg, 2013
• Not checked yetcites Costa et al., 2009

In the paper

“Brookmeyer, Johnson, Ziegler-Graham, and Arrighi (2007) used epidemiological data from 2006 to predict the prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease in 2050 and projected that a one year delay in symptom onset translated into 9.2 million fewer cases of the disease.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brookmeyer, Johnson, Ziegler-Graham, and Arrighi (2007)

In the paper

“Costa et al. (2006) later proposed a hybrid account that included selection and inhibition, acknowledging a role for both but insisting that the influence of the non-target language is never absent.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Costa et al. (2006)

In the paper

“The explanation for the modification of brain and cognition from bilingual experience must ultimately be based on systems connected to executive function processes that are housed in frontal brain regions.”

In the paper

“They found a significant decline in the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease with an increase in population multilingualism, a relation that became stronger when an estimate of life expectancy was included in the model. The results remained significant after controlling for the effects of such factors as wealth and literacy.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Klein, Christie, and Parkvall (2016)

In the paper

“Following therapy, 19.6% of monolingual patients showed normal cognitive function but 40.5% of bilingual patients achieved this outcome, about double the rate.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Alladi et al., 2016

In the paper

“Fortifying this view, the inhibition explanation coincided with the appearance of Green’s (1998) Inhibitory Control Model (Section 1.3) in which it was argued that bilingual language processing was based on an attention system, the Supervisory Attention System, that inhibited the unwanted language so that processing could proceed in the target language.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Green’s (1998)

In the paper

“Wimo, Jonsson and Winblad (2006) estimated that the worldwide direct costs of treating dementia, based on a 2003 prevalence estimate of 27.7 million patients, was $156 billion US dollars.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wimo, Jonsson and Winblad (2006)

In the paper

“The results revealed three core components that were moderately correlated with each other – shifting, updating (working memory), and inhibition – and contributed independently to performance on the five complex tasks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miyake et al., 2000

In the paper

“Second, the research with children showing better performance by bilingual than monolingual children on metalinguistic and cognitive tasks found group differences for conditions that required children to ignore salient but misleading information but not for comparable conditions that did not include distraction (for review, Bialystok, 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, 2001

In the paper

“Work in understanding frontal lobe function that acknowledged it as the seat of the executive functions (Fuster, 2002) were also instrumental in focusing attention on the role of inhibition in bilingual cognitive performance.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Fuster, 2002

In the paper

“Although these are different aspects of inhibition, they are not distinguished in the Miyake et al. (2000) model; stop-signal and Stroop tasks are considered equivalent in their contribution to the inhibition component.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Miyake et al. (2000)

In the paper

“Following from these models being proposed at the time, the hypothesis for the mechanism responsible for the effects of bilingualism on cognition was that experience in recruiting the frontal lobe to inhibit the unwanted language and allow processing to proceed through the target language had the long term effect of boosting inhibitory processes more broadly (Bialystok et al., 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok et al., 2009

In the paper

“However, there is no evidence that bilingualism prevents dementia, only that it postpones symptoms and diagnoses.”

In the paper

“First, there was already substantial evidence that language selection was non-specific in that both languages were jointly activated to some degree, therefore requiring a mechanism for language selection. This evidence for joint activation has increased in both quantity and sophistication in recent years (for review, Kroll et al., 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Kroll et al., 2015

In the paper

“Crucially, however, the model showed no statistical relation between bilingualism and dementia, even though there was a clear stratification of incidence of dementia as a function of four discrete levels of bilingualism (Zahodne et al., 2014, Figure 1), with greater bilingualism being associated with lower incidence of dementia and later onset of symptoms.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zahodne et al., 2014

In the paper

“Cognitive recovery following stroke depended on several factors: better outcomes were found for patients who were younger, more educated, had fewer vascular risk factors, and were bilingual.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Alladi et al., 2016

In the paper

“In several studies, monolingual and bilingual children performed equivalently on all conditions except (c), where bilingual children were more accurate (e.g., Bialystok, 1986, 1988; Cromdal, 1999).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok, 1986, 1988
• Not checked yetcites Cromdal, 1999

In the paper

“All three types of evidence were consistent with the explanation based on enhanced inhibitory control, possibly as a consequence of experience in language inhibition, and endorsed the use of the Miyake framework as a means of understanding these effects.”

In the paper

“However, it is instructive to note that Baddeley’s (1986) model of working memory included a central executive that moderated the function of the domain-specific slave systems through attention.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Baddeley’s (1986)

In the paper

“For example, Bialystok (1992) argued that aspects of selective attention that were developing in childhood, such as those required to perform Piagetian conservation tasks, were more advanced in bilingual children because of their experience in attending to two languages.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bialystok (1992)

In the paper

“Moreover, EEG analyses showed that the trained children activated the executive attention network more efficiently than untrained children, a difference that was maintained two months after training (Rueda et al., 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Rueda et al., 2012

In the paper

“Second, working memory capacity is rooted in the deployment of attention, something missing from the unity/diversity view.”

In the paper

“Botvinick, Braver, Barch, Carter, and Cohen (2001) proposed that the essence of cognitive control is the detection of conflict, and that this is achieved by the anterior cingulate cortex.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Botvinick, Braver, Barch, Carter, and Cohen (2001)

In the paper

“The process that unites the results from infants, children, and adults is attention, and the measures at each stage of the lifespan are invariably assessments of attention to various kinds of representations.”

In the paper

“or between Mandarin-Min bidialectics and monolingual Mandarin speakers (Wu, Zhang, & Guo, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wu, Zhang, & Guo, 2016

In the paper

“Bilingualism is particularly challenging in this respect because bilingualism itself is not one thing, making it difficult to use it as a categorical distinction among research participants (Luk & Bialystok, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Luk & Bialystok, 2013

In the paper

“In this approach, the attention system is separate from other processing systems and is based on networks of brain regions.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Posner & Petersen, 1990

In the paper

“They tested 34 children, half of whom were bilingual, and reported no group difference on a Simon task but a modest correlation between SES and executive function performance (p < .05).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Morton and Harper (2007)

In the paper

“Similarly, Mezzacappa (2004) studied 6-year olds with a range of backgrounds and found faster performance on the ANT by bilinguals than monolinguals and by children with high socioeconomic status than children with lower socioeconomic status.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mezzacappa (2004)

In the paper

“Green and Abutalebi (2013) address this issue in the “Adaptive Control Hypothesis”. They identify three distinct interactional contexts and propose different consequences for each on eight control processes.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Green and Abutalebi (2013)

In the paper

“Studies in which SES is carefully controlled have shown that bilingual children (Blom et al., 2014; Engel de Abreu et al., 2012; Kang, Thoemmes, & Lust, 2016) and adults (Nair, Biedermann, & Nickels, in press) outperform monolinguals at both low levels of SES and high levels of SES (Morales et al., 2013: Yang et al., 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Blom et al., 2014
• Not checked yetcites Engel de Abreu et al., 2012
• Not checked yetcites Kang, Thoemmes, & Lust, 2016

In the paper

“Morton and Harper (2007) argued that SES and not bilingualism was the relevant variable in early studies showing better performance by bilingual children on executive function tasks.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Morton and Harper (2007)

In the paper

“The working hypothesis, therefore, is that lifelong bilingualism impacts a set of processes subsumed under the category of executive attention.”

In the paper

“The “capacity” referenced in working memory capacity is not storage space but rather the extent to which resources are available to control attention to maintain information relevant for a current task (Engle, 2002; Engle & Kane, 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Engle, 2002
• Not checked yetcites Engle & Kane, 2004

In the paper

“The three primary attention networks identified in this research are sustained (parietal cortex, right frontal cortex), selective (parietal structures and frontal eye fields), and executive (left and right frontal cortex and ACC).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Posner & Petersen, 1990

In the paper

“Beginning in infancy, the attention system is adapted to the particular demands of a bilingual environment, and these adaptations become apparent in cognitive performance across the lifespan.”

In the paper

“Higher bilingualism scores and better attention ability were both associated with better performance on three executive function tasks, with little interaction between them and no additional burden for their combination.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Sorge, Toplak, and Bialystok (in press)

In the paper

“Shipstead, Harrison, and Engle (2015, p. 1863) define working memory capacity as “the cognitive system in which memory and attention interact to produce complex cognition”. Importantly, Engle (2002) suggests that this construct could equally be called “executive attention”.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shipstead, Harrison, and Engle (2015)
• Not checked yetcites Engle (2002)

In the paper

“First, unlike the compartmentalization of Miyake’s unity/diversity view, Engle’s working memory capacity is a continuous construct, making it more likely to show experience-dependent plasticity than would be found for a discrete construct.”

In the paper

“It is undeniable that SES affects these cognitive outcomes, but such results do not preclude effects from bilingualism as well.”

In the paper

“The strongest effects are found with the executive attention component, the construct most likely to be relevant to bilingual processing. Training studies with children have shown improved performance on such tasks as ANT after training on attention exercises, such as tracking, focusing, and selecting with conflict (Posner & Rothbart, 2005; Rueda, Checa, & Combita, 2012; Rueda, Posner, & Rothbart,”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Posner & Rothbart, 2005
• Not checked yetcites Rueda, Checa, & Combita, 2012
• Not checked yetcites Rueda, Posner, & Rothbart, 2005

In the paper

“The evidence on this point is unclear, as cognitive consequences of bilingualism have been found with similar (Spanish-Catalan: Costa et al., 2008) and different (Korean-English: Yang & Yang, 2016) languages.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Costa et al., 2008
• Not checked yetcites Yang & Yang, 2016

In the paper

“To some extent, the executive attention subcomponent encompasses much of the processing generally included in current conceptions of executive function, such as working memory, set switching, and inhibitory control but without isolating them as in the Miyake model.”

In the paper

“Although the extension from experience with language selection to nonverbal attention involving selection might be best considered as far-transfer, no claims have been made that bilingualism could increase fluid intelligence.”

In the paper

“Crucially, these effects require that the attention system is intact, allowing bilingualism to influence performance. When the attention system is impaired as in clinical ADHD, the ongoing attention demands of bilingualism, presumably for language control, overburden the system.”