User-generated digital flashcards yield better learning than premade flashcards
Abstract
10.1037/mac0000083
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Experiment 1 learning material was adapted from Pan et al. (2023) and comprised two texts on expressionist art and ancient Rome.
“The learning material used in Experiment 1 was adapted from Pan et al. (2023), which itself built upon previous studies. The material comprised two texts (each approximately 500 words long), one on expressionist art and the other on ancient Rome.”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Pan et al., 2023
The instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials.
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Pan et al., 2023
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Pengaruh Media Flashcard Berbasis Digital terhadap Kemampuan Membaca Awal Anak Usia 5-6 Tahun
Maronta, Y., Sutarto, J., & Isdaryanti, B. (2023) · Jurnal Obsesi Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini · doi:10.31004/obsesi.v7i1.4152 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
How do college students use digital flashcards during self-regulated learning?
Zung, I., Imundo, M. N., & Pan, S. C. (2022) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2022.2058553 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Recent work has demonstrated that engaging in generation does indeed augment the bene fi ts of learning with digital fl ashcards (Pan et al., 2022).”
BackgroundSelf-citationChen, A. M., Kumar, S. E., Varkhedi, R., & Murphy, D. H. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09917-7 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“With the advancement of technology, students are able to tailor their learning environments according to their needs, beliefs about their own learning, and access to digital resources (e.g., digital flashcards, practice tests, study guides; Pan et al., 2023; Zung et al., 2022).”
Digital learning resource use among Swedish medical students: insights from a nationwide survey
Bjurström, M. F., Lundkvist, E., Sturesson, L. W., et al. (2025) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-025-07446-7 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The latter has been shown to improve learning more compared to using premade cards [22].”
Reimagining pharmacology education
Guilding, C., Kelly-Laubscher, R. F., Cunningham, M., Dilles, T., Kennedy, D., Brinkman, D. J., Eid, A. H., Quesnelle, K. M., Engels, F., Maxwell, S., et al. (2026) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.pharmr.2026.100126 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“378 Although perceived by learners to be a useful learning assistant, AI tools may hallucinate, provide inaccurate or out-of-date information, and may lead learners to rely too heavily on the likes of ChatGPT potentially impacting their critical thinking and problem-solving skills.”
Pan, S. C., González‐Cabañes, E., Teo, A. Z. J., Zung, I., Sana, F., & Cooke, J. E. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70071 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationIngebrigtsen, M., Miland, Å. O., Bastesen, J., & Sæle, R. G. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70086 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Ryo, N., Nouchi, R., Yagi, A., Yamaya, N., Ota, M., Ishigooka, M., & Kawashima, R. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104051 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Andriani, M., Sunardi, S., & Drajatı, N. A. (2024) · Voices of English Language Education Society · doi:10.29408/veles.v8i2.26810 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“(Xodabande et al., 2022; Pan et al. 2023).”
Khasanah, M., & Yulianto, S. (2024) · JPI (Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia) · doi:10.23887/jpiundiksha.v13i3.76685 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Effect of Flashcards in Online-Based Maharah Kitabah Learning on Learning Outcomes
Norhidayah, N., Ilhami, R., Zahrotunnida, Z., et al. (2023) · Al-Ta rib Jurnal Ilmiah Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Arab IAIN Palangka Raya · doi:10.23971/altarib.v11i1.4556 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Imundo, M. N., Sanchez, R. L. R., Gonzalez, B. L., Adler, R. M., & Bjork, E. L. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70068 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationImundo, M. N., Zung, I., Whatley, M. C., & Pan, S. C. (2024) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-024-09406-w · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…by themselves, studies of flashcard learning suggest that the de facto procedure when studying with flashcards is to do so with covert retrieval (Pan et al., 2022); in this set of studies, participants did not show benefits of individual flashcard practice in Experiments 1 and 2 when they were…”
InfluentialSelf-citationHow do college students use digital flashcards during self-regulated learning?Preprint
Zung, I., Imundo, M. N., & Pan, S. C. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ve7hr · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationTesting the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning
Sigayret, K., Parmentier, J.-F., & Silvestre, F. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1727423
Althoviyah, I., Mulyana, A., & Kumar, K. S. (2023) · IJIS Edu Indonesian Journal of Integrated Science Education · doi:10.29300/ijisedu.v5i2.10533
“In flashcard learning media made by students because students can express various kinds of ideas according to their creativity and add other content (Pan et al., 2022).”
BackgroundUsing Secondary Materials for the Creation of Biological Teaching Models
Nagervadze, M., Nakashidze-Makharadze, T., Koridze, M., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.46300/9109.2024.18.9
Flash Card Learning Media to Improve Javanese Writing Skills in Elementary School
Candra, P. D., Hendratno, H., & Sukartiningsih, W. (2025) · Journal of Innovation and Research in Primary Education · doi:10.56916/jirpe.v4i3.1461
The Role of Semiotics in ELT Grammar and Vocabulary Instruction
Altay, İ. F., Saygı, A., & Kaval, A. (2026) · Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education · doi:10.14686/buefad.1621442
Harder, F., Barth, H., & Häfner, S. (2026) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg s Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-026-05954-x
- Authors
- Pan, S. C., Zung, I., Imundo, M. N., Zhang, X., & Qiu, Y.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition
- Published
- 2023-12
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 574-588
- ISSN
- 2211-3681 (ISSN-L)
- 2211-369X
- OpenAlex
- W4311938448
- Cited by
- 19
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 1.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- National University of Singapore (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- flashcards, active recall, memory retention, learning effectiveness, student self-regulation
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