The DOI matches its Crossref record; 82 of the 82 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 170 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
The use of social networking sites, body image dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphic disorder: A systematic review of psychological research
Abstract
The escalation of social networking site (SNS) usage has led to much research examining both the positive and negative implications SNS can have on well-being. However, whilst many studies have investigated the relationship between SNS usage and body image, there remains a paucity of research in regards to SNS usage and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD). A systematic search was undertaken using Web of Science, PsychInfo and PubMed databases to identify SNS usage and patterns, SNS features and mediating factors contributing towards body image dissatisfaction, resulting in 40 studies meeting specific inclusion criteria. Findings identified passive SNS use and appearance-focused SNS use as particularly influential. Appearance-based comparisons were also found to be a strong mediator between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction. Using the current knowledge, parallels were highlighted in terms of body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptomatology, suggesting frequent SNS usage as a potential risk factor in the development of BDD symptoms.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This systematic review of 40 studies found that passive and appearance-focused SNS use, mediated by appearance comparisons, is associated with greater body image dissatisfaction, and it draws parallels to BDD symptomatology. It concludes frequent SNS use may be a risk factor for BDD symptoms but notes that no included study explicitly tested SNS use and BDD, and calls for standardised definitions of excessive SNS use.
Key findings
- Across 40 included studies, average SNS time was 1.5–2 hours per day; one older study reported 45 minutes per day on Facebook. In one study, 94% of respondents used Facebook at least once daily, 80.8% used it more than 15 minutes per day, and 20% spent more than two hours per day; 29.1% used highly visual social media more than two hours per day, and four respondents reported more than 11 hours per day.
- Passive SNS use and appearance-focused SNS use were particularly influential; appearance-based comparisons were a strong mediator between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction, with upward comparisons associated with greater body dissatisfaction and body checking.
- Parallels were highlighted between body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptomatology, such as reassurance-seeking and comparison, suggesting frequent SNS use as a potential risk factor for BDD symptoms; however, BDD was not explicitly compared with body image dissatisfaction and SNS use in any included study.
- Gender differences were reported: females showed higher SNS use/excessive time (e.g., social media addiction mean 26.2 vs. 22.8; excessive time 13.79 vs. 11.71), and 20 studies used young female samples with limited male inclusion.
Methods
- PRISMA-guided systematic review; searched Web of Science, PsychInfo, and PubMed using terms including social networking sites, social media, body image, comparison, self-esteem, body dysmorphic disorder, Facebook, Instagram, and body dissatisfaction; reference lists were also scanned.
- Inclusion required empirical data and measures of SNS use, SNS features, body image, and BDD; exclusions were non-English studies, reviews, commentaries, book chapters, published abstracts, and non-peer-reviewed articles. Screening identified 9,095 records; 4,955 duplicates were removed, 4,140 were screened, 4,059 were excluded, 81 full texts were assessed, 41 were excluded (21 no body image measure, 14 no SNS use measure, 6 reviews), leaving 40 studies.
- Data were extracted on sample characteristics, methodology and measures, and mediating processes; findings were synthesised narratively and presented in Table 1.
Limitations
- Stated: social media and SNS are often used interchangeably but are not the same; included studies did not always define social media and spanned multiple SNS platforms rather than one, which may affect conclusions; the growing literature means relevant studies in submission or published since may have been missed.
- Stated: many included studies used self-report perceived time online, subject to social desirability and recall bias; most were correlational/cross-sectional, so causal inferences cannot be drawn and bidirectional relationships are likely; longitudinal designs were lacking.
- Stated/evident: samples were predominantly female, with 20 studies using young female samples and limited male inclusion; BDD was not explicitly compared with SNS use and body image dissatisfaction in any included study, so BDD conclusions are inferential.
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Claims the paper makes
175 Not checked yet · 17 Own interpretation · 9 No basis given · 8 Own method · 6 Own result
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A systematic search was undertaken using Web of Science, PsychInfo and PubMed databases to identify SNS usage and patterns, SNS features and mediating factors contributing towards body image dissatisfaction, resulting in 40 studies meeting specific inclusion criteria.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“A total of 40 studies were consequently identified as relevant from the literature.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Results · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, whilst many studies have investigated the relationship between SNS usage and body image, there remains a paucity of research in regards to SNS usage and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD).”
- Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
“Whilst a number of studies investigate the relationship between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction, there remains a paucity of research surrounding SNS usage and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Appearance-based comparisons were also found to be a strong mediator between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two studies directly measured excessive and addictive SNS use.”
plainn = 4- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Findings indicated an increase in the frequency of SNS use within the last decade.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Average time spent on SNS was between 1.5-2 hours per day”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Various features of SNS have been highlighted to mediate the relationship between body image concerns and SNS use in total of ten studies”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the way individuals engage on SNS has been shown to also play an important role in the mediation of body image concerns and well-being”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rousseau et al., 2017
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the internalisation of thin ideals was highlighted as a strong mediating factor in the drive for negative body image, thinness and weight dissatisfaction in a number of studies”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
“internalising ideals was a strong mediating factor in the drive for both weight and muscle dissatisfaction in a number of studies”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the current studies indicate that photo-based SNS activity and passive SNS use are strongly associated with body image concerns through the mediation of appearance comparisons”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 54
- Probably not a substantial claim. 36
- The quote only partly states this claim. 3
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings identified passive SNS use and appearance-focused SNS use as particularly influential.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“with one study reporting a time of 45 minutes spent on Facebook”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Time spent on SNS was identified in 17 studies”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Five studies used psychometric tools which included the Facebook Questionnaire”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
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In the paper
“one study also included participants who reported their daily time spent on social media as exceeding 11 hours”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Much of the research suggested that frequent use of SNS is associated with increased body image concern and dissatisfaction, with many studies in particular surrounding Facebook.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present studies demonstrate that frequency of SNS use has increased in recent years, with an average of two hours a day being spent online.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The relationship between SNS and body image concerns was measured with a variety of psychometric tools.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Appearance and social comparisons were also highlighted in a number of studies as a strong mediator in body image dissatisfaction”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
“The role of comparison was highlighted as a predominant mediating factor in the relationship between SNS and body image dissatisfaction”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Factors including SNS features and appearance comparison online were found to contribute to body image dissatisfaction”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A total of 40 empirical studies were identified”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“females endorsed a significantly higher time on SNS in comparison to males, which was also associated with appearance dissatisfaction”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“many studies focus only on Facebook, which arguably confines findings of SNS usage and subjective well-being outcomes to this particular site”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These findings highlight social comparison as a mediator across various dimensions of wellbeing, including self-esteem and body image dissatisfaction, indicating comparison on SNS as a strong factor in body image concerns”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“self-esteem was also found as a mediator in body image dissatisfaction, and was often a co-mediator with comparison”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In relation to SNS, this suggests that those who engage in appearance comparisons online may experience an increase in negative appearance evaluation and therefore the likelihood of developing BDD symptomatology through frequent and repetitive SNS use.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, passive SNS use has also been related to upward social comparison, which is consequently associated with lower self-evaluation and subjective well-being (Wang, Wang, Gaskin & Hawk, 2017)”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wang, Wang, Gaskin & Hawk, 2017
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“it has been suggested that the addictive behaviours displayed in those presenting OCD symptomatology can be conceptualised as a coping mechanism for the symptoms expressed (Lieb, 2015), which may be likened to the safety behaviours exhibited in BDD.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lieb, 2015
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“resulting in greater appearance comparisons and poorer body satisfaction in comparison to women (Fatt, Fardouly & Rapee, 2019).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fatt, Fardouly & Rapee, 2019
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Such symptomatology is also parallel with the behaviour individuals with high body dissatisfaction exhibit, which has consequently been shown to lead to further negative appearance evaluation (Lambrou, Veale & Wilson, 2012).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lambrou, Veale & Wilson, 2012
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The review process was conducted in accordance to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis statement (PRISMA; Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff & Altman, 2009).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff & Altman, 2009
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Many studies exploring this relationship are correlational however (Smith, Hames & Joiner, 2013; Kim & Chock, 2015), therefore due to the cross-sectional nature of these studies, causal inferences cannot be drawn and it is likely that a bidirectional relationship exists between SNS engagement and body image dissatisfaction.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Smith, Hames & Joiner, 2013
- Not checked yetcites Kim & Chock, 2015
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“indicating that the differential outcomes of well-being are dependent on the way SNS users engage with SNS platforms when online.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Facebook users were more extravert and open, while non-users were more conscientious.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ghosh & Dagupta (2015)
plaincorrelationaln = 120- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Women also tend to use group names for self-presentation and prefer adding portrait photos to their profiles, in comparison to men who choose full- body shots.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Haferkamp, Eimler, Papadakis & Kruck (2012)
plaincorrelationaln = 106- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Women also tend to use group names for self-presentation and prefer adding portrait photos to their profiles, in comparison to men who choose full- body shots.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Haferkamp, Eimler, Papadakis & Kruck (2012)
hedgedcorrelationaln = 106- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such literature suggests that while there may be gender differences in the perception of idealised body type, the nature of engagement and the features of SNS use may be associated in the development and maintenance of body image dissatisfaction.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Gender predicted SM but not IA”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hawi & Samaha, 2018
plaindirectn = 512- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is not the total time spent on FB or the internet, but rather amount of FB time allocated to photo activity that is associated with greater thin ideal internalisation, self-objectification, weight dissatisfaction and drive for thinness.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Meier & Gray (2014)
plainn = 103- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, only the interaction between social phobia and media pressure was a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rodgers & Chabrol (2010)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Fardouly and Vartanian (2015) who also demonstrated a modal time of two hours spent on Facebook using a young Australian female sample.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Scores indicated a moderate level of addictive social media use overall, with females reporting higher levels of social media use (mean score 26.2) than males (mean score 22.8).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hawi & Samaha, 2017
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“on Facebook, reading newsfeed was the most popular activity, followed by viewing photos and messaging on a typical visit to the site”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eckler et al., 2017
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Results by Tiggemann and Miller (2010), in a study that consisted of 156 adolescent female high school students, indicated that the modal time spent on the internet generally was 2-3 hours per day, with 40% of this sample spending 45 minutes per day on Facebook.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tiggemann & Miller, 2010
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Time spent online was mainly measured through general self-report questions asking to indicate the number of minutes or hours spent on SNS”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Results by Muench et al. (2015) found that 94% of respondents reported being on Facebook at least once a day, with 80.8% being on Facebook for more than 15 minutes per day, and 20% spending more than two hours a day on Facebook.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Muench et al., 2015
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Findings demonstrated 29.1% of respondents used highly visual social media (HVSM), such as Instagram and Snapchat, for more than 2 hours a day, which resulted in higher levels of emotional symptoms among HVSM users (Marengo et al., 2018).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Marengo et al., 2018
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a study by Cohen, Newton-John and Slater (2017) found that photo-based activities on Facebook were associated with greater thin ideal internalisation and body surveillance, whilst Instagram use was associated with greater thin ideal internalisation, body surveillance and drive for thinness.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, Newton-John and Slater, 2017
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the majority of the studies implemented self-report measures in terms of respondents' perceived time online, which may be subject to social desirability and recall bias.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“internalisation of media ideals, in addition to body mass index (BMI), were the strongest predictors for the drive for muscularity”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Daniel & Bridges, 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It has also been suggested that gender may predict excessive SNS use.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Results reported that individuals experienced a more intense drive towards thinness and had greater body dissatisfaction, particularly if they found themselves frequently engaging in comparisons with others.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hendrickse, Apran, Clayton and Ridgeway, 2017
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“findings indicated that internet exposure was associated with body surveillance and reduced body esteem, whilst Facebook users scored significantly higher on all indicators of body image concern.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tiggemann & Slater, 2013
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Facebook use was not associated with drive for muscularity for either males or females”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kim & Chock, 2015
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“it is not wholly clear how this relationship is established and how this consequently leads to increased drive for muscularity”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Daniel & Bridges, 2010
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Findings presented a strong relationship between body comparisons and drive for muscularity”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Stratton et al., 2015
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“it has been suggested that more than two hours a day may point towards excessive SNS usage (Marengo et al., 2018).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Marengo et al., 2018
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“exposure to fitspiration images resulted in greater body dissatisfaction and lower appearance self-esteem than the control images, an effect that was mediated by appearance comparison processing”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“passive Facebook use predicted an increase in male appearance comparisons and increased body dissatisfaction”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rousseau et al., 2017
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“higher levels of ASMC were positively associated with increased body comparison, in addition to higher body surveillance and lower self-esteem”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Choukas et al., 2018
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“passive Facebook use has been shown to predict an increase in young boys' appearance social comparisons, which was subsequently associated with higher body dissatisfaction”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rousseau et al., 2017
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“individuals who were more emotionally connected to Facebook tended to be more oriented towards their appearance”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rutledge et al., 2013
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“frequency of Facebook usage was positively associated with body image concerns, which were mediated by appearance comparisons in general”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fardouly & Varanian, 2015
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“did not support the relationship between time spent on Facebook and body image concerns”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rutledge et al., 2013
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“it may be that such findings indicate towards a cycle of SNS use and body dissatisfaction, in which passive SNS use positively influences comparison and body dissatisfaction, and that these behaviours and cognitions positively influence passive SNS use”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rousseau et al., 2017
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“photo related activities on Instagram were not directly associated with body image dissatisfaction, but that they were related through both internalisation and appearance comparisons”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hendricke et al., 2017
- Not checked yetcites Fardouly et al., 2018
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“women being more likely to upload more portrait pictures, as opposed to full body pictures, which could provide more opportunities to make facial, skin and hair-related comparisons than body comparisons”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“women are more likely to upload portrait pictures onto SNS, as opposed to full body pictures, which may provide increased opportunities for facial, skin and hair related comparisons”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Haferkamp et al., 2012
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“20 studies were conducted with young female samples, with a lack of male inclusion, which may not accurately reflect SNS usage and gender differences wholly”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“social comparison and self-objectification mediate the relationship between body shame, Facebook use, self-esteem and mental health”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hanna et al., 2017
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“females are more likely to use highly visual SNS as opposed to males, which consequently leads to greater body image dissatisfaction; such effects were stronger when SNS usage was above two hours a day”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Marengo et al., 2018
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“high social comparison orientation SNS users are more likely to engage in upward social comparisons, and therefore face more detrimental effects in regards to self-evaluations and well-being”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wang et al., 2017
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“heavier Instagram use was positively correlated with a range of psychological outcomes including lower self-esteem, body image disturbance and physical appearance anxiety, which was mediated by social comparison”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2018
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“passive SNS usage was also related to upward social comparison, which was consequently associated with users' lower self-evaluation”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wang et al., 2017
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Facebook use was associated with both increased social comparison and self-objectification, which was subsequently associated with lower self-esteem, in addition to greater body shame and poorer mental health”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hanna et al., 2017
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the focus on upward comparisons was associated with greater body dissatisfaction and body checking”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ridolfi et al., 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“females are more likely to spend an increased amount of time on SNS, resulting in higher weight and appearance concerns”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Murray, Maras & Goldfield, 2016
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“initial findings did not observe a direct association between Instagram use and self-esteem”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Stapleton et al., 2017
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“individuals who already experience distorted appearance-focused cognitions may place higher value on aesthetic appearance and therefore are more likely to evaluate themselves physically through comparison targets online”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ridolfi et al., 2011
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“comparisons mediated levels of self-esteem, with increased comparison being associated with lower self-esteem, subsequently leading to greater body shame”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hanna et al., 2017
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is likely that studies that are in the process of submission or that have been published since have not been included within the review.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“whilst subthreshold disorders do not meet full diagnostic criteria, they do involve the presence of core symptoms and impairment, which has been shown to predict clinical manifestations of the disorder (Wolitzky-Taylor, Dour, Zinbarg, Mineka, Vrshek-Schallhorn, Epstein et al., 2014).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wolitzky-Taylor, Dour, Zinbarg, Mineka, Vrshek-Schallhorn, Epstein et al., 2014
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the review included studies that did not specifically discern the definition of social media, in addition to including a range of different SNS platforms (e.g. Facebook, Instagram) as opposed to focussing on one specific platform, which may have implicated the conclusions drawn.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“longitudinal research has indicated that passive Facebook use predicts an increase in individuals' appearance comparisons, which was consequently associated with higher body dissatisfaction”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rousseau et al., 2017
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“women are more likely to upload portrait pictures onto SNS, as opposed to full body pictures, which may provide increased opportunities for facial, skin and hair related comparisons”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Haferkamp et al., 2012
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“symptoms of BDD include the performance of repetitive behaviours, such as reassurance-seeking and comparison (Kelly et al., 2013)”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kelly et al., 2013
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“the popularity of selfies (self-portrait pictures) has dramatically increased”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chae, 2017
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Upward comparisons in particular were demonstrated to be most detrimental, leading to stronger appearance-focussed cognitive distortions”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ridolfi et al., 2011
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is suggested that frequent SNS comparisons may mediate the onset of subthreshold BDD, leading to increased SNS usage and maintenance of BDD symptoms.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Platforms such as Instagram, which focus on a highly image-based environment, may have a stronger association with body image dissatisfaction”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Facebook use had no direct effect on body satisfaction, or the desire to change weight or shape”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fardouly et al., 2015
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“many of the measures used to assess body image concerns within this review included the PACS and BSQ, which focus on weight and body shape comparisons. This may have subsequently biased findings towards weight-related body dissatisfaction”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“measures that have been chosen to assess appearance-based constructs may not be sufficiently sensitive to different online environments.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper relies on this without support.
The included studies' measures of SNS use and body image are valid and comparable enough to synthesize across studies.
“Features of SNS use were predominantly assessed using a number of self-report methods”
The paper relies on this without support.
The reviewed literature is representative of the broader research on SNS and body image.
“A total of 40 empirical studies were identified”
The paper relies on this without support.
The relationship between SNS use and body image concerns has clinical implications worth assessing.
“if SNS research aims to extend into clinical assessment, a standardised baseline regarding SNS usage time needs to be implemented”
The paper relies on this without support.
Body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptoms are parallel enough to discuss together.
“Parallels between body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptoms are also discussed”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Users often find themselves preoccupied with capturing the perfect photo, achieving a particular look, or crafting an image that will garner approval and admiration from their social media peers [39].”
From Body Perceptions and Psychological Well-Being: A Review of the Impact of Social Media and Physical Measurements on Self-Esteem and Mental Health with a Focus on Body Image Satisfaction and Its Relationship with Cultural and Gender Factors (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the act of curating and maintaining an idealized online self demands constant vigilance and self-scrutiny, which can become a significant source of stress and anxiety.”
From Body Perceptions and Psychological Well-Being: A Review of the Impact of Social Media and Physical Measurements on Self-Esteem and Mental Health with a Focus on Body Image Satisfaction and Its Relationship with Cultural and Gender Factors (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Reviews of cross-sectional research have consistently found higher social media use to be related to higher body dissatisfaction [30,31,32].”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Social Networking Site Usage
“It was found that females reported significantly more perceived time on SNS as opposed to males.”
§ Results
“| Choukas-Bradley, Nesi, Widman & Higgins (2018) | Within subjects design; survey. N =339 females in a south eastern United States university”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ SNS Features
“The emphasis of appearance-focussed SNS use was further highlighted in the results of a survey comprising of 598 adolescents.”
§ Results
“| Marengo, Longobardi, Fabris & Settanni (2017) | Within subject design; survey N =523 adolescents between grades from two schools in Northern Italy”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Method
“Studies were included if they (i) included empirical data, made reference to at least one measure of (ii) SNS use (either general or specific SNS), (iii) features of SNS use (active /passive), as well as at least one measure of (iv) body image and (v) body dysmorphic disorder.”
§ Results
“| Daniel & Bridges (2010) | Within subjects design; survey. N =244 male college students from Southern US (mean age 21.35, SD= 3.81) | Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire. Self-Objectification Questionnaire Objectified Body Consciousness Scale Drive for Muscularity Scale.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Networking Site Usage
“Hawi and Samaha (2017) used the Social Media Addiction Questionnaire on a sample of 396 university students in Lebanon.”
§ Results
“| Hawi & Samaha, 2017 | Within subjects; survey N = 364 university students in Lebanon (mean age = 21.1, SD = 2.3; 52.2% male”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ SNS Features
“Ages ranged between 11.5-23.83 years (Tiggemann & Slater, 2013; Eckler, Kalyango, Yusuf & Paasch, 2017) and participants were predominantly female across all studies.”
§ Results
“N =11,017 sampled from New Zealand electoral roll (mean age 49.23, SD = 15.12; 62% female)”
Citations
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
American Psychiatric Association (2013) · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 · Cited by 116,369
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & the PRISMA Group* (2009) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135 · Cited by 37,554
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Social Media and Body Image: Recent Trends and Future Directions
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“Users often find themselves preoccupied with capturing the perfect photo, achieving a particular look, or crafting an image that will garner approval and admiration from their social media peers [39].”
BackgroundDo social networking sites influence well-being? The extended active–passive model
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Psychology of aesthetics: Beauty, social media, and body dysmorphic disorder
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Metadata
- Authors
- Ryding, F. C., & Kuss, D. J.
- Venue
- Psychology of Popular Media
- Published
- 2020-10
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 412-435
- ISSN
- 2689-6567 (ISSN-L)
- 2689-6575
- OpenAlex
- W2989773729
- Semantic Scholar
- afa2eeb0ef12e7b698545ddb5cecce87c802a6e3
- Cited by
- 162
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 7
- FWCI
- 1.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychology of Popular Media (publishedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Keywords
- social networking sites, body dissatisfaction, body dysmorphic disorder, passive social media use, mediators
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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