Body composition and energy expenditure predict ad-libitum food and macronutrient intake in humans
Open accessAbstract
Background Obesity is the result of chronic positive energy balance. The mechanisms underlying the regulation of energy homeostasis and food intake are not understood. Despite large increases in fat mass (FM), recent evidence indicates that fat-free mass (FFM) rather than FM is positively associated with intake in humans.Methods In 184 humans (73 females/111 males; age 34.5±8.8 years; percentage body fat: 31.6±8.1%), we investigated the relationship of FFM index (FFMI, kg m(-2)), FM index (FMI, kg m(-2)); and 24-h energy expenditure (EE, n=127) with ad-libitum food intake using a 3-day vending machine paradigm. Mean daily calories (CAL) and macronutrient intake (PRO, CHO, FAT) were determined and used to calculate the relative caloric contribution of each (%PRO, %CHO, %FAT) and percent of caloric intake over weight maintaining energy needs (%WMENs).Results FFMI was positively associated with CAL (P<0.0001), PRO (P=0.0001), CHO (P=0.0075) and FAT (P<0.0001). This remained significant after adjusting for FMI. Total EE predicted CAL and macronutrient intake (all P<0.0001). FMI was positively associated with CAL (P=0.019), PRO (P=0.025) and FAT (P=0.0008). In models with both FFMI and FMI, FMI was negatively associated with CAL (P=0.019) and PRO (P=0.033). Both FFMI and FMI were negatively associated with %CHO and positively associated with %FAT (all P<0.001). EE and FFMI (adjusted for FMI) were positively (EE P=0.0085; FFMI P=0.0018) and FMI negatively (P=0.0018; adjusted for FFMI) associated with %WMEN.Conclusion Food and macronutrient intake are predicted by FFMI and to a lesser degree by FMI. FFM and FM may have opposing effects on energy homeostasis.
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The major findings (association between energy expenditure and energy intake) have been replicated in completely independent large data sets that included participants from different ethnic groups showing a huge range of energy intakes and from participants of variable BMIs allowed to freely select their own diet under meticulously controlled semi-free living conditions.
“Importantly the major findings have been replicated in completely independent large data sets that included participants from different ethnic groups showing a huge range of energy intakes [45], and from participants of variable BMIs allowed to freely select their own diet under meticulously controlled semi-free living conditions (Stubbs, Whybrow, and Horgan - personal communication).”
From Appetite control and energy balance: Impact of exercise (2015) · cites this paper as [45]
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References 31 · Cited by 110
- Authors
- Weise, C. M., Hohenadel, M. G., Krakoff, J., & Votruba, S. B.
- Affiliations
- Leipzig University (DE)
- United States Department of Health and Human Services (US)
- Corresponding author
- Votruba, S B
- Venue
- International Journal of Obesity
- Published
- 2013-05-23
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 243-251
- ISSN
- 0307-0565 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5497
- PMC
- PMC3909024
- OpenAlex
- W2003065070
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 3.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- International Journal of Obesity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 DK999999)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Keywords
- body composition, fat-free mass index, fat mass index, energy expenditure, dietary intake, macronutrient intake, energy homeostasis, obesity, fat-free mass, fat mass
- MeSH terms
- Adipose Tissue, Adult, Body Composition, Body Weight, Energy Intake, Dietary Fats, Dietary Fiber, Dietary Proteins, Energy Metabolism, Female, Glucose Tolerance Test, Homeostasis, Humans, Male, Predictive Value of Tests, Body Mass Index
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