The DOI matches its Crossref record; 30 of the 30 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Visual features of intermediate complexity and their use in classification
Abstract
The human visual system analyzes shapes and objects in a series of stages in which stimulus features of increasing complexity are extracted and analyzed. The first stages use simple local features, and the image is subsequently represented in terms of larger and more complex features. These include features of intermediate complexity and partial object views. The nature and use of these higher-order representations remains an open question in the study of visual processing by the primate cortex. Here we show that intermediate complexity (IC) features are optimal for the basic visual task of classification. Moderately complex features are more informative for classification than very simple or very complex ones, and so they emerge naturally by the simple coding principle of information maximization with respect to a class of images. Our findings suggest a specific role for IC features in visual processing and a principle for their extraction.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Here, optimization is thought to involve the development of letter combination detectors that best constrain word identity (the diagnosticity constraint), in the same way that parts of objects act as clues to object identity in certain theoretical approaches to visual object recognition (e.g., Ullman et al., 2002).”
From A Dual-Route Approach to Orthographic Processing (2011) · cites this paper as Ullman et al., 2002
In the citing paper
“Our results indeed agree with several theories of visual processing that suggest that an initial feedforward sweep driven by bottom-up inputs builds a base representation that relies on a basic dictionary of generic features (11-13, 17, 41) before more complex tasks or visual routines can take place through recurrent projections from higher areas (20, 42, 43, 45).”
From A feedforward architecture accounts for rapid categorization (2007) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Key to the recognition performance of the model is the large number of tuned units across its hierarchical architecture, which is a direct consequence of the learning from natural images and represent a redundant dictionary of fragment-like features (12, 17, 41) that span a range of selectivities and invariances.”
From A feedforward architecture accounts for rapid categorization (2007) · cites this paper as [17]
Citations
Cites
Learning the parts of objects by non-negative matrix factorization
Lee, D. D., & Seung, H. S. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/44565 · Cited by 14,137
Turk, M., & Pentland, A. (1991) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1991.3.1.71 · Cited by 13,733
Eigenfaces vs. Fisherfaces: recognition using class specific linear projection
Belhumeur, P. N., Hespanha, J. P., & Kriegman, D. J. (1997) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/34.598228 · Cited by 11,798
Emergence of simple-cell receptive field properties by learning a sparse code for natural images
Olshausen, B. A., & Field, D. J. (1996) · Nature · doi:10.1038/381607a0 · Cited by 5,694
Basic objects in natural categories
Rosch, E., Mervis, C. B., Gray, W. D., Johnson, D. M., & Boyes-Braem, P. (1976) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(76)90013-x · Cited by 5,643
Ballard, D. H., & Brown, C. M. (1982) · Cited by 5,303
Friedman, N., Geiger, D., & Goldszmidt, M. (1997) · Machine Learning · doi:10.1023/a:1007465528199 · Cited by 4,742
Detecting faces in images: a survey
Yang, M.-H., Kriegman, D. J., & Ahuja, N. (2002) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/34.982883 · Cited by 3,458
Hierarchical models of object recognition in cortex
Riesenhuber, M., & Poggio, T. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/14819 · Cited by 3,309
Face recognition by elastic bunch graph matching
Wiskott, L., Fellous, J., Kuiger, N., & von der Malsburg, C. (1997) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/34.598235 · Cited by 2,916
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–599 of 599
Applying Information Theory to Validate Commanders' Critical Information Requirements
Timms, M. A. C., Mandel, D. R., & Nelson, J. D. (2024) · Chapman & Hall/CRC eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781003396307-18 · Cited by 1
Natural Scene and Object Perception Based on Statistical Image Features: Psychophysics and EEG
Orima, T., Kurosawa, F., Sekimoto, T., & Motoyoshi, I. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0859-25.2025 · Cited by 2
The Visual Hierarchy Mirage: Seeing Trees in a Graph
Zucker, S. W. (2013) · Advances in computer vision and pattern recognition · doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-5195-1_11 · Cited by 1
Face tracking in low resolution videos under illumination variations
Zou, W. W. W., Chellappa, R., & Yuen, P. C. (2011) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.2011.6116672 · Cited by 1
Create visual word pairs dynamically based on sparse codes of SIFT features for image categorization
Wu, L., Huang, Y., Sun, W., & Ke, J. (2012) · International Conference on Natural Computation (ICNC) · doi:10.1109/icnc.2012.6234525 · Cited by 1
The effective resolution of correlation filters applied to natural scenes
Vidal-Naquet, M. J., & Tanifuji, M. (2007) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2007.383368 · Cited by 1
Self-citationVisual dictionaries in the Brain: Comparing HMAX and BOW
Ramakrishnan, K., Groen, I. I. A., Scholte, H. S., Smeulders, A. W. M., & Ghebreab, S. (2014) · IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME) · doi:10.1109/icme.2014.6890312 · Cited by 1
Latent Model Clustering and Applications to Visual Recognition
Polak, S., & Shashua, A. (2007) · IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2007.4409051 · Cited by 1
Multimap formation in visual cortex
Jain, R., Millin, R., & Mel, B. W. (2015) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/15.16.3 · Cited by 1
Zhu, S. C., & Wu, T. (2011) · Cited by 1
Random Variable Transformations
Ogunnaike, B. A. (2009) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b17197-10 · Cited by 1
Elements for a Neural Theory of the Processing of Dynamic Faces
Serre, T., & Giese, M. A. (2010) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262014533.003.0014 · Cited by 1
General Principles of the Objects Recognition
Fuchs, R., Veselý, P., & Nácarová, J. (2019) · Springer briefs in animal sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-12404-5_4 · Cited by 1
Balas, B., Harel, A., Auen, A., & Saville, A. L. (2019) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci9070154 · Cited by 1
Multimodal Visual Features on Rhizome Image Classification Using Support Vector Machines
Hamdani, S. K., Fahmi, H., Khudzaifah, M., Kusumastuti, A., Jauhari, M. N., & Sari, W. P. (2024) · doi:10.1109/icoict61617.2024.10698345 · Cited by 1
Xiong, N., Wang, N., Li, H., Zhu, G., Zhang, L., Shah, S. A. A., & Bennamoun, M. (2024) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2024.128969 · Cited by 1
Diagnostic parts are not exclusive in the search template for real-world object categories
Wurth, M., & Reeder, R. (2019) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.03.006 · Cited by 1
Maximal Dependence Capturing as a Principle of Sensory Processing
Raj, R., Dahlen, D., Duyck, K., & Yu, C. R. (2022) · Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncom.2022.857653 · Cited by 1
An Approach to Visual Scenes Matching with Curvilinear Regions
Pérez-Lorenzo, J. M., Bandera, A. J., López, P. R., Marfil, R., & Vázquez-Martín, R. (2007) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73055-2_43 · Cited by 1
Towards a unified account of face (and maybe object) processing
Tan, C. (2012) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 1
High-level visual object representations in inferior temporal cortex
Mur, M. (2011) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20111202mm · Cited by 1
A Novel Object Categorization Model with Implicit Local Spatial Relationship
Wu, L., Luo, S., & Sun, W. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13318-3_18 · Cited by 1
Learning Nonlinear Visual Processing from Natural Images
Lindgren, J. T. (2008) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 1
Classifying a New Descriptor Based on Marr’s Visual Theory
Pérez-Lorenzo, J. M., Galán, S. G., Bandera, A. J., Vázquez-Martín, R., & Marfil, R. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02264-7_22 · Cited by 1
Visual codebook construction for class-specific recognition
Gao, J., Sang, N., Gao, C., Tang, Q., & Jun, S. (2009) · Optical Engineering · doi:10.1117/1.3160333 · Cited by 1
Some relationships between minimum Bayes error and information theoretical feature extraction
Vasconcelos, M., & Vasconcelos, N. M. (2005) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.604289 · Cited by 1
Object Detection Using Multi-local Feature Manifolds
Danielsson, O., Carlsson, S., & Sullivan, J. (2008) · International Conference on Digital Image Computing: Techniques and Applications (DICTA) · doi:10.1109/dicta.2008.22 · Cited by 1
Perceptual Similarities Amongst Novel, 3D Objects
Cooke, T. (2007) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 1
Multiclass object recognition inspired by the ventral visual pathway
Mutch, J. V. (2010) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0051724 · Cited by 1
A Model of Analogical Retrieval Using Intermediate Features
Finlayson, M. A., & Winston, P. H. (2004) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
Modeling Visual Minutiae: Gestures, Styles, and Temporal Patterns
Ginosar, S. (2020) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
Thorat, S., & Peelen, M. V. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.11.17.469004 · Cited by 1
Applying Information Theory to Validate Commanders’ Critical Information RequirementsPreprint
Timms, M. A. C., Mandel, D. R., & Nelson, J. D. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/n8xka · Cited by 1
Detecção de cenas em segmentos semanticamente complexos
Lopes, B. L. (2014) · doi:10.11606/d.55.2014.tde-12082014-101301 · Cited by 1
Computational modeling of face recognition
Wallraven, C., Schwaninger, A., & Bülthoff, H. (2003) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 1
Etude sur la pensée animale: continuité neuro-cognitive de la catégorisation visuelle
Cauchoix, M. (2012) · Thèses en ligne de l'Université Toulouse III (Université Toulouse III)
Ohayon, S. (2014) · CaltechTHESIS (California Institute of Technology) · doi:10.7907/wd1d-w918
Open N-Grams and Discriminant Features in Text World: An Empirical Study
Lapedriza, À. (2004)
Cross-domain self organizing maps
Fidelholtz, E. L. (2006)
Applications of Kernel Methods
Camps‐Valls, G., Martínez‐Ramón, M., & Rojo‐Álvarez, J. L. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-010-3.ch009
What are Intermediate‐Level Visual Features?
Zucker, S. W. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118329016.ch18
Functional Constraints on Network Topology via Generalized Sparse Representations
Rao, A. R., & Cecchi, G. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0724-9_5
What happens next and when "next" happens: Mechanisms of spatial and temporal predictionPreprint
Wyatte, D. (2014) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1407.5328
Measuring External Face Appearance for Face Classification
Masip, D., Lapedriza, À., & Vitria, J. M. (2007) · doi:10.5772/4842
Comparing feature matching for visual object categorization: MAX vs. bag-of-words
Wijnhoven, R. G. J., With, D. P. H. N., Tjalkens, T. J., & Willems, F. M. J. (2009) · TU/e Research Portal
Extending Recognition in a Changing Environment
Harari, D., & Ullman, S. (2013) · International Conference on Computer Vision Theory and Applications · doi:10.5220/0004281106320640
Self-citationA study in human attention to guide computational action recognition
Sinai, S. (2014) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
A computational model of visual interpretation
Biswas, D., & Kanti, K. (2006)
Recognizing complex faces and gaits via novel probabilistic models
Venkatasubramanian, I. V. K. (2010)
A hierarchical framework for object recognitionPreprint
Moazzezi, R. (2014) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1410.7762
Robust object recognition based on HMAX model architecture
Chang, Y., Xu, Z., Zhang, J., Fu, C., & Gao, C. (2012) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.999350
Date, A. (2005) · Systems and Computers in Japan · doi:10.1002/scj.20367
Report Fragment-Based Learning of Visual Object Categories
Hegdé, J., Bart, E., & Kersten, D. (2008)
An optimization approach to achieve unsupervised segmentation and binding in a dynamical network
Rao, A. R., Cecchi, G., Peck, C., & Kozloski, J. (2006) · International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN) · doi:10.1109/ijcnn.2006.1716673
Biologically Inspired Class-Specific Codebook Construction
Gao, J., Gao, C., Sang, N., & Tang, Q. (2009) · International Workshop on Education Technology and Computer Science · doi:10.1109/etcs.2009.552
Workshop on Generic Object Recognition and Categorization
Dickinson, S., Leonardis, A., & Schiele, B. (2004) · IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2004.479
Fink, M., & Ben‐Shakhar, G. (2005)
Transferring Characteristic Proportions to Modify the Artistic Style of Cartoons
Buchanan, P., & Doggett, M. (2012) · Lund University Publications (Lund University)
Rough Set Theory of Shape Perception
Przybyszewski, A. W. (2007) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74205-0_78
Class-specific codebook construction for biologically inspired recognition
Gao, J., Gao, C., Sang, N., & Tang, Q. (2009) · IEEE International Advance Computing Conference · doi:10.1109/iadcc.2009.4809073
OBSERVATIONS OF HIGH-DIMENSIONAL DATA
Yörük, E. (2011)
Machine Recognition of Objects
Poggio, T., & Ullman, S. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-63416-2_793
Self-citationRiccio, D., Casanova, A., & Fenu, G. (2014) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-5966-7.ch009
Gilman, A. (2009) · University of New Hampshire Scholars Repository (University of New Hampshire at Manchester)
EMOTIONAL ENGAGEMENT AND BRAIN POTENTIALS
Dottorato, C., Codispoti, M., & Mattarozzi, K. (2014)
The Featural Code of Face Perception: Three Studies of Human and Automatic Visual Face Processing
Nestor, A. (2009) · ProQuest Demo Repository · doi:10.7301/z00g3hdm
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE AND THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF FEATURE CREATION DURING CATEGORY ACQUISITION
FINK, M., Ben‐Shakhar, G., & Horn, D. (2004) · Neural Computation and Psychology Workshop (NCPW) · doi:10.1142/9789812702784_0013
Detection of free-form objects using appearance-based local features
Vicente, M. A., Fernández, C., Payá, L., & Gil, A. (2007)
Generic Object Recognizer Design
Mundy, J. L. (2006) · Computer Vision for Interactive and Intelligent Environment (CVIIE) · doi:10.1109/cviie.2005.9
Intermediate Features Improve Incremental Analogical Mapping
Finlayson, M. A., & Winston, P. H. (2005) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Rumelhart Symposium: Integrating Human and Machine Vision: In Honor of Shimon Ullman
Tarr, M. J., Behrmann, M., Christof Koch, A., Logothetis, N. K., & Malach, R. (2008) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Constructing the Search Template: Episodic and Semantic Influences on Categorical Template Formation
Pinto, G., & Juan, D. G. (2016) · Civil War Book Review
Graphical Models of the Visual Cortex
Dean, T. (2010)
Taffar, M., & Miguet, S. (2017) · Advances in multimedia and interactive technologies book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2848-7.ch009
Using Motion and Internal Supervision in Object RecognitionPreprint
Harari, D. (2018) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1812.05455
Early Vision and Cognitive Penetrability
Raftopoulos, A. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-10445-0_3
Perrett, D. I. (2020) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101928
Invariant Object Representation Based on Principle of Maximal Dependence CapturingPreprint
Raj, R., Dahlen, D., Duyck, K., & Yu, C. R. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/662130
Repetition blindness for words and pictures: A failure to form stable type representations?
Harris, I. M., Hayward, W. G., Seet, M. S., & Andrews, S. (2021) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01146-5
Invariant visual object recognition and shape processing in rats
Zoccolan, A. (2015)
Bansal, S. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.08.005
Ardeshir Goshtasby, A. (2012) · Advances in computer vision and pattern recognition · doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-2458-0_4
Mack, M. L., Richler, J. J., Palmeri, T. J., & Gauthier, L. (2009) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470478509.neubb001021
Thompson, W., Fleming, R. W., Creem-Regehr, S., & Stefanucci, J. K. (2011) · A K Peters/CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b10927-24
Discussion: Biological Plausibility of the Model
Jang, J., & Paik, S. (2022) · KAIST research series · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-0031-0_5
Taffar, M., & Miguet, S. (2018) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-6912-1.ch034
Machine Recognition of Objects
Poggio, T., & Ullman, S. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-31439-6_793
Self-citationObserving versus creating flowers: a review of relevance for art therapy
Huss, E., Nagamine, M., & Zaccai, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2025.1504057
Given the birds, where is the flock? Visual estimation of the location of collections of pointsPreprint
Ota, K., Wu, Q., Mamassian, P., & Maloney, L. T. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.07.10.664170
Arts visuels et cognition : Développement visuel et formation du jugement esthétique
Mottier, H. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/53f1226bz8d14z4b23zb5f0zb739e535728c
Metadata
- Authors
- Ullman, S., Vidal-Naquet, M., & Sali, E.
- Affiliations
- Weizmann Institute of Science (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Ullman, Shimon
- ORCID
- Ullman, Shimon
- Venue
- Nature Neuroscience
- Published
- 2002-06-10
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 682-687
- ISSN
- 1097-6256 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-1726
- OpenAlex
- W2037090920
- Cited by
- 600
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2025: 6 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 14.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Visual Attention and Saliency Detection
- Keywords
- visual feature extraction, object classification, information maximization, feature complexity, visual cortex, hierarchical visual processing, primate visual system
- MeSH terms
- Computer Simulation, Face, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Pattern Recognition, Visual
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review