A Dual-Route Approach to Orthographic Processing

The differential time-course of orthographic and phonological effects has been revealed in masked priming studies.

“This differential time-course of effects has been revealed on several occasions in studies of masked orthographic and phonological priming (Ferrand and Grainger, 1994; Ziegler et al., 2000).”

• cites Ferrand and Grainger, 1994 sourceSupported
• cites Ziegler et al., 2000 sourceSupported

Development of parallel orthographic processing reduces phonological effects that arise principally via phonological recoding.

“(2) a reduction in phonological effects that arise principally via phonological recoding (e.g., Sprenger-Charolles et al., 2003)”

• cites Sprenger-Charolles et al., 2003 sourcePartly supported

  The Development of Reading and Spelling Skills section reports that the expected fading of the regularity effect—a measure of reliance on phonological processing—appeared in reading latencies only, from the end of Grade 3. It did not appear in spelling, and phonological effects persisted in other measures. The unqualified claim of a reduction is therefore broader than the paper's findings. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Sublexical morpho-orthographic processing is performed by neural structures in fusiform gyrus.

“With respect to the role of fusiform gyrus in fine-grained orthographic processing as defined in our account, it is important to note that there is evidence suggesting that sublexical morpho-orthographic processing is performed by neural structures in this region (Bick et al., 2011; Solomyak and Marantz, 2009).”

• cites Bick et al., 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) says the left occipito-temporal region is involved in a structural level of morphological processing that is mainly morpho-orthographic. It does not identify the region showing that effect specifically as the fusiform gyrus, so the claim’s precise anatomical location is not established by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Solomyak and Marantz, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Intact derived primes produced significant priming.

“we found significant priming from intact derived primes (e.g., farmer–farm) and TL derived primes (e.g., faremr–farm), as well significant priming from intact pseudo-derived primes (e.g., corner–corn), but most important, no priming from TL pseudo-derivations (e.g., corenr–corn).”

Intact pseudo-derived primes produced significant priming.

“we found significant priming from intact derived primes (e.g., farmer–farm) and TL derived primes (e.g., faremr–farm), as well significant priming from intact pseudo-derived primes (e.g., corner–corn), but most important, no priming from TL pseudo-derivations (e.g., corenr–corn).”

TL pseudo-derived primes produced no priming.

“we found significant priming from intact derived primes (e.g., farmer–farm) and TL derived primes (e.g., faremr–farm), as well significant priming from intact pseudo-derived primes (e.g., corner–corn), but most important, no priming from TL pseudo-derivations (e.g., corenr–corn).”

TL derived primes produced significant priming.

“we found significant priming from intact derived primes (e.g., farmer–farm) and TL derived primes (e.g., faremr–farm), as well significant priming from intact pseudo-derived primes (e.g., corner–corn), but most important, no priming from TL pseudo-derivations (e.g., corenr–corn).”

During reading acquisition, optimizing the mapping from print to meaning also involves detecting letter combinations that match pre-existing sublexical phonological and morphological representations (the chunking constraint).

“and on the other hand to involve the detection of letter combinations that correspond to pre-existing sublexical phonological and morphological representations (chunking constraint)”

The BIAM accounts for a wide range of visual word recognition phenomena, including rapid involvement of phonological codes in silent word reading.

“The specific architecture of the BIAM allows it to account for a wide range of phenomena associated with visual word recognition, and in particular, the rapid involvement of phonological codes in the process of silent word reading”

• cites Braun et al., 2009Not matched

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• cites Diependaele et al., 2010Not matched

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• cites Grainger and Ziegler, 2008Not matched

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A flexible orthographic code such as open-bigram coding is unlikely to provide appropriate input for sublexical translation of orthography to phonology.

“As pointed out by Goswami and Ziegler (2006), however, this kind of flexible orthographic code is unlikely to provide an appropriate input for the sublexical translation of orthography to phonology.”

• cites Goswami and Ziegler (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The fine-grained route enables chunking of frequently co-occurring contiguous letter combinations that serve as units for morpho-orthographic processing (prefixes and suffixes) and for sublexical print-to-sound conversion (multi-letter graphemes).

“This enables the chunking of frequently co-occurring contiguous letter combinations that form relevant units for morpho-orthographic processing (prefixes and suffixes) and for the sublexical translation of print to sound (multi-letter graphemes).”

For location-invariant word recognition, the location-specific map must be transformed into a word-centered code that ties letter identity to within-word position independently of retinal location.

“However, for the purposes of location-invariant word recognition, this location-specific map must be transformed into a “word-centered” code such that letter identity is tied to within-word position (where a word is defined as a string of letters separated by spaces) independently of retinal location”

• cites Caramazza and Hillis, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The dual-route approach provides a comprehensive account of reading aloud in skilled adult readers and dyslexics.

“In its most recent form, the dual-route approach provides a comprehensive account of phenomena related to the process of reading aloud in skilled adult readers and dyslexics”

• cites Perry et al., 2007, 2010Not matched

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Knowing only that S is somewhere before H would generate too many false positive coding or binding errors, such as detecting 'sh' in 'sahara'.

“Knowing that S is somewhere before H (as in an open-bigram coding scheme) would generate too many false positive coding errors or binding errors (von der Malsburg, 1999), such as identifying the presence of the complex grapheme “sh” in the word “sahara.””

• cites von der Malsburg, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

An open-bigram representation is activated by words containing the two letters in that order regardless of how many letters intervene.

“Therefore, exactly the same open-bigram representation (e.g., T–A) would be activated by words containing these two letters in that order independently of how many intervening letters there are”

Processing at the alphabetic array is insensitive to the orthographic regularity of letter strings.

“Thus, processing at the level of the alphabetic array is insensitive to the orthographic regularity of letter strings.”

Many models of visual word recognition, including the BIAM, use a single type of sublexical orthographic code.

“One key feature of many models of visual word recognition, including the BIAM, is that there is a single type of sublexical orthographic code.”

• cites McClelland and Rumelhart, 1981 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In the Grainger and van Heuven model, the alphabetic array codes for a letter's presence at a location relative to eye fixation along the horizontal meridian, independently of other letters.

“In the Grainger and van Heuven model of orthographic processing (Figure 2), the alphabetic array codes for the presence of a given letter at a given location relative to eye fixation along the horizontal meridian.”

• cites Grainger and van Heuven (2003)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The present dual-route approach postulates two fundamentally different kinds of location-invariant, word-centered, sublexical orthographic codes.

“In the present article, we describe a dual-route approach to orthographic processing that postulates the existence of two fundamentally different kinds of location-invariant, word-centered, sublexical, orthographic codes.”

Computing the identity of a complex grapheme such as 'sh' requires knowing that H immediately follows S.

“In order to compute the identity of complex graphemes such as “sh,” you need to know that H immediately follows S.”

The coarse-grained route codes combinations of the most visible letters that best constrain word identity.

“That is, the strategy of this route is to code for combinations of the most visible letters that best constrain word identity.”

Letter combinations encountered less often in other words are more diagnostic of the identity of the word being processed.

“Letter combinations that are encountered less often in other words are more diagnostic of the identity of the word being processed.”

The alphabetic array should feed into two different types of location-invariant sublexical codes.

“This observation suggests that the initial phase of orthographic processing in the Grainger and van Heuven (2003) model, the alphabetic array, should feed into two different types of location-invariant sublexical codes.”

Rigid slot-coding schemes cannot account for transposed-letter effects.

“Rigid slot-coding schemes cannot account for transposed-letter effects (see Grainger, 2008, for review).”

• cites Grainger, 2008Not matched

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The system needs to know the precise ordering of letter identities in the stimulus word.

“That is, the system needs to know precisely the ordering of the different letter identities in the stimulus word”

• cites Goswami and Ziegler, 2006Not matched

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The fine-grained code enables coding of multi-letter graphemes and their precise ordering in the string.

“This fine-grained code enables the coding of multi-letter graphemes and their precise ordering in the string.”

The shift from precise slot-coding to flexible coding was mainly motivated by letter transposition effects in masked priming and in unprimed lexical decision.

“Now, one key empirical phenomenon provided the principal motivation for the theoretical shift from overly precise letter position coding schemes, such as the slot-coding scheme of the interactive-activation model (McClelland and Rumelhart, 1981), to more flexible coding schemes such as open-bigram coding. That was the effects of letter transpositions observed in masked priming experiments”

• cites Perea and Lupker, 2004Not matched

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• cites Schoonbaert and Grainger, 2004Not matched

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• cites Chambers, 1979Not matched

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Processing pseudo-homophones involves some form of sublexical conversion of print-to-sound.

“Pseudo-homophone effects represent one key empirical signature of fine-grained orthographic processing, since it is generally agreed that the processing of such stimuli involves some form of sublexical conversion of print-to-sound.”

The coarse-grained route computes a code to rapidly identify a unique word and its semantic representations.

“In one route, a coarse-grained orthographic code is computed in order to rapidly home in on a unique word identity and the corresponding semantic representations (the fast track to semantics).”

The multiple-route model predicts that a transposed-letter manipulation should eradicate pseudo-homophone priming effects.

“Our multiple-route model makes one key prediction with respect to effects of pseudo-homophone primes. These effects should be eradicated by a transposed-letter manipulation, since precise letter order information is required along the fine-grained processing route that generates a sublexical phonological code.”

Frequency of co-occurrence enables the formation of higher-order representations (chunking) that reduce the amount of information processed via data compression.

“On the other hand, frequency of co-occurrence enables the formation of higher-order representations (chunking) in order to diminish the amount of information that is processed, via data compression.”

The reduced transposed-letter effects with legal non-words likely reflect more efficient computation of a phonological code.

“We agree with Frankish and Turner (2007) and Frankish and Barnes (2008), that the reduced TL effects seen with legal non-words most likely reflect the more efficient computation of a phonological code with this kind of non-word compared with the illegal non-words.”

• cites Frankish and Turner (2007)Not matched

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• cites Frankish and Barnes (2008)Not matched

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Precise letter order is required for pseudo-homophone priming because phoneme representations are activated via the fine-grained orthographic code.

“That is, according to our approach, precise letter order information is required in order to generate a pseudo-homophone priming effect because phoneme representations are activated via the fine-grained orthographic code.”

In the model, the route from print to meaning via sublexical phonological representations involves fine-grained orthographic processing.

“According to the model depicted in Figure 4, the route from print to meaning via sublexical phonological representations, involves fine-grained orthographic processing.”

When top-down constraints are absent, the slower fine-grained route provides disambiguating information.

“In the absence of such additional top-down constraints, processing along the slower fine-grained route will also provide disambiguating information when necessary”

Frequently co-occurring letter combinations can be grouped into higher-level orthographic representations such as multi-letter graphemes and morphemes, linking to pre-existing phonological and morphological representations.

“Letter combinations that often occur together can be usefully grouped to form higher-level orthographic representations such as multi-letter graphemes (th, ch) and morphemes (ing, er), thus providing a link with pre-existing phonological and morphological representations during reading acquisition.”

Pseudo-homophone effects are a key empirical signature of fine-grained orthographic processing.

“Pseudo-homophone effects represent one key empirical signature of fine-grained orthographic processing, since it is generally agreed that the processing of such stimuli involves some form of sublexical conversion of print-to-sound.”

The motivation for the two routes in this approach is not the traditional direct orthographic versus indirect phonological pathway distinction.

“However, contrary to alternative dual-route accounts of orthographic processing (e.g., Whitney and Cornelissen, 2005, 2008), the motivation behind the two routes in our approach is not based on the traditional distinction between direct “orthographic” and indirect “phonological” pathways in reading”

• cites Whitney and Cornelissen, 2005, 2008Not matched

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ERP research compared priming from transposed-letter primes with priming from pseudo-homophone primes.

“Most important is that the latter research compared priming from transposed-letter primes (e.g., barin–BRAIN vs. bolin–BRAIN) with priming from pseudo-homophone primes (e.g., brane–BRAIN vs. brans–BRAIN).”

• cites Grainger et al., 2006bNot matched

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Effects of transposed-letter primes appeared in ERP waveforms about 50 ms before pseudo-homophone priming effects.

“Effects of transposed-letter primes were seen in the ERP waveforms about 50 ms before the emergence of pseudo-homophone priming effects.”

• cites Grainger et al., 2006bNot matched

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Even in spoken language, diagnosticity and chunking can be distinguished.

“However, even in the domain of spoken language one can draw a distinction between diagnosticity and chunking.”

Frequency of occurrence determines the probability that a given letter combination belongs to the word being read.

“On the one hand, frequency of occurrence determines the probability with which a given combination of letters belongs to the word being read.”

Masked priming evidence supports coarse orthographic coding: transposed-letter primes, subset primes, and superset primes produce robust priming effects.

“Empirical evidence in favor of this type of coarse orthographic coding has been obtained using the masked priming paradigm in the form of robust priming effects with transposed-letter primes (e.g., gadren-GARDEN: Perea and Lupker, 2004; Schoonbaert and Grainger, 2004), and subset and superset primes”

• cites Perea and Lupker, 2004Not matched

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• cites Schoonbaert and Grainger, 2004Not matched

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• cites Peressotti and Grainger, 1999Not matched

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The fine-grained orthographic code provides more precise information about the ordering of letters in the string.

“On the right-hand side of Figure 3, the fine-grained orthographic code provides more precise information about the ordering of letters in the string.”

Experiments manipulating orthographic regularity and pronounceability of transposed-letter non-words provide another line of evidence for the dual-route approach.

“Another line of evidence in favor of this dual-route approach comes from experiments manipulating the orthographic regularity and pronounceability of non-word stimuli created by a letter transposition”

• cites Frankish and Turner, 2007Not matched

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• cites Frankish and Barnes, 2008Not matched

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Precise ordering is particularly important for extracting contiguous letter combinations that form multi-letter grapheme representations.

“This is particularly important for extracting contiguous letter combinations that form multi-letter grapheme representations, such as the “ch” and “ai” in the word “chair.””

Derived suffixed primes facilitate recognition of stem targets relative to unrelated primes in masked priming.

“A large number of masked priming studies have shown that derived suffixed primes facilitate the recognition of stem targets (worker–work) relative to unrelated primes (e.g., Grainger et al., 1991).”

• cites Grainger et al., 1991Not matched

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Given variations in letter visibility, computing order and identity information for the most visible letters is the most efficient way to obtain a fast guess at word identity.

“The key idea behind this proposal is that given variations in letter visibility across a string of letters (e.g., Stevens and Grainger, 2003), the most efficient means of obtaining a fast guess at word identity is to compute order and identity information for the most visible letters.”

• cites Stevens and Grainger, 2003Not matched

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Open-bigram coding is one possible implementation of the coarse-grained orthographic processing route.

“We nevertheless point out that open-bigram coding is only one possible implementation of the coarse-grained orthographic processing route of our dual-route approach.”

• cites Whitney, 2001Not matched

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• cites Grainger and van Heuven, 2003Not matched

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• cites Grainger and Whitney, 2004Not matched

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This phonological code, generated via the fine-grained route, interferes with the coarse-grained route's output, reducing evidence for the baseword.

“This phonological code, generated via the fine-grained processing route in our model, would interfere with the output of the coarse-grained processing route, therefore reducing the evidence in favor of the presence of the baseword”

The two routes differ notably in the precision with which they code letter position information.

“The two routes differ notably in terms of the level of precision with which letter position information is coded.”

Semantically opaque complex primes and pseudo-complex primes produce priming similar to semantically transparent complex primes.

“Both these prime types show priming that is similar to that of semantically transparent complex primes (worker–work; see Rastle and Davis, 2008 for review)”

• cites Rastle and Davis, 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Development of parallel orthographic processing enables emergence of morpho-semantic and morpho-orthographic representations via combination of coarse-grained and fine-grained processing.

“and (3) the emergence of both morpho-semantic and morpho-orthographic representations via the combination of coarse-grained and fine-grained orthographic processing.”

Affix detection is the key mechanism underlying morpho-orthographic segmentation.

“More precisely, we propose that affix detection is the key mechanism underlying morpho-orthographic segmentation (see Andrews and Davis, 1999, for a concrete proposal).”

• cites Andrews and Davis, 1999Not matched

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Reduced efficiency in morpho-orthographic processing of pseudo-root Hebrew words allows development of coarse-grained processing without reaching non-Semitic efficiency.

“Within our dual-route approach, the likely reduced efficiency in morpho-orthographic processing of such words compared with root-derived words, would allow the development of coarse-grained processing, without actually reaching the same level of efficiency as achieved when processing non-Semitic words in the coarse-grained route.”

Fine-grained optimization involves detection of frequently co-occurring letter combinations, the chunking constraint.

“Given the nature of these pre-existing representations, this optimization is thought to involve detection of frequently co-occurring letter combinations (the chunking constraint).”

Affix detection requires precise letter position coding and therefore can only be performed via fine-grained orthographic processing.

“Therefore, since the detection of affixes, just like complex graphemes, requires precise letter position coding (e.g., to distinguish between the real suffix “ion” and the non-suffix ending “oin”), it can only be performed via fine-grained orthographic processing.”

Whole-word form activation is constrained by top-down feedback from morpho-semantic representations.

“Activation in whole-word form representations (both orthographic and phonological, not shown in Figure 5) is further constrained by top-down feedback from morpho-semantic representations”

The priming results indicate sublexical morpho-orthographic processing that segments stem and affix, allowing activation of a stem orthographic representation.

“These results all point to some form of sublexical morpho-orthographic processing that, when presented with a fully decomposable stimulus, segments the stem and affix thereby allowing activation of an orthographic representation of the stem.”

Letter transpositions disrupt processing of Semitic root morphemes as much as letter substitutions.

“Letter transpositions would therefore disrupt the processing of these root morphemes, causing as much damage as letter substitutions because of the fine-grained nature of the coding.”

Both coarse-grained and fine-grained orthographic processing are performed by neural structures in the ventral occipital-temporal junction, specifically the left fusiform gyrus.

“Within the framework of our dual-route approach to orthographic processing, we would argue that both coarse-grained and fine-grained orthographic processing is performed by neural structures in the VOT junction, and specifically in the left fusiform gyrus (the VWFA, Cohen et al., 2002).”

• cites Cohen et al., 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Coarse-grained coding would produce too many false affix detections, such as detecting the suffix "er" in "their."

“Just as is the case with complex graphemes, coarse-grained coding would give rise to too many false affix detections (binding errors), such as detecting the suffix “er” in “their.””

Development of parallel fine-grained orthographic coding is particularly important for extracting suffixes or rhymes.

“The development of a parallel version of this fine-grained orthographic coding is particularly important for the extraction of suffixes or rhymes, for which the positions of the component letters are defined with respect to word endings (e.g., Treiman et al., 1995).”

• cites Treiman et al., 1995Not matched

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Development of parallel letter processing leads to two types of location-invariant sublexical orthographic codes.

“It is the development of parallel letter processing, thought to involve some form of location-specific letter code, that then leads to the development of the two types of location-invariant, sublexical, orthographic codes that form the basis of skilled silent reading according to our dual-route approach.”

Development of parallel orthographic processing enables faster access to semantic representations via a coarse-grained orthographic code.

“According to this account, the development of parallel orthographic processing will enable (1) faster access to semantic representations via the development of a coarse-grained orthographic code”

No priming is found when the prime is formed by a stem plus a non-suffix ending.

“while again no priming is found when the prime is formed by the stem plus a non-suffix ending (cornal–corn; Longtin and Meunier, 2005, but see Morris et al., 2011, for possible limits of such a finding).”

• cites Longtin and Meunier, 2005Not matched

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• cites Morris et al., 2011Not matched

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Masked priming studies show an advantage for semantically transparent derived primes over semantically opaque and/or pseudo-derived primes.

“Evidence in favor of this approach, and against purely morpho-orthographic accounts (Rastle and Davis, 2008), comes from masked priming studies showing an advantage for semantically transparent derived primes relative to semantically opaque and/or pseudo-derived primes (Diependaele et al., 2005, 2009; Morris et al., 2007).”

• cites Diependaele et al., 2005Not matched

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• cites Diependaele et al., 2009Not matched

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• cites Morris et al., 2007Not matched

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The coarse-grained processing route provides direct access to semantics via orthographic information alone.

“This is the coarse-grained processing route that provides direct access to semantics via orthographic information alone.”

Attention may play a different role in learning coarse-grained versus fine-grained representations.

“Furthermore, although learning of coarse-grained and fine-grained representations may well both largely involve implicit, unsupervised learning algorithms, attention might play a different role in these two cases.”

Development of parallel orthographic processing increases sensitivity to orthographic priming.

“(3) an increased sensitivity to orthographic priming (e.g., Castles et al., 2007; Acha and Perea, 2008)”

• cites Castles et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Acha and Perea, 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Development of parallel orthographic processing enables greater efficiency in sublexical translation of orthography to phonology via a fine-grained orthographic code.

“(2) greater efficiency in the sublexical translation of orthography to phonology via the development of a fine-grained orthographic code”

True morphological relations still benefit from morpho-semantic facilitation obtained via coarse-grained coding.

“On the other hand, true morphological relations (e.g., farmer–farm) still benefit from morpho-semantic facilitation obtained via coarse-grained coding, such that the prime “faremr” strongly activates the whole-word orthographic representation “farmer” which connects with the whole-word orthographic representation for the word “farm” via shared morpho-semantic representations.”

Morphologically simple Hebrew words of non-Semitic origin show standard letter transposition effects.

“Furthermore, Velan and Frost (2011) have recently demonstrated that morphologically simple Hebrew words of non-Semitic origin show the standard effects of letter transpositions seen with words in languages like English and French.”

• cites Velan and Frost, 2011Not matched

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Exposure to printed words during phonological recoding enables setting up the specialized parallel orthographic processing system.

“Inspired by the self-teaching hypothesis of Share (1995), we propose that it is during this relatively slow and painstaking process of phonological recoding that exposure to printed words enables the setting-up of the specialized system for parallel orthographic processing that is hypothesized in our model of orthographic processing.”

• cites Share, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The boost in activation of the stem representation generates facilitation when the stem is the following target word.

“It is this boost in activation of the representation of the stem that generates facilitation during processing of the stem as the following target word.”

Prioritizing fine-grained over coarse-grained processing is not on-line but arises per word from relative efficiency of mapping orthographic information onto semantics along each route.

“As noted above, such prioritizing is not thought to occur on-line, but arises for each individual word as a function of the relative efficiency of the process of mapping orthographic information onto semantics along each of the two routes.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two processing routes are not subject to any on-line control mechanism that could disable one or the other route.

Development of parallel orthographic processing increases sensitivity to morphological structure.

“and (4) an increased sensitivity to morphological structure (e.g., Colé et al., 2011).”

• cites Colé et al., 2011Not matched

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Supervision of orthographic-phonological associations can be external or internal.

“However, this supervision can be both externally driven (teacher) and internally driven, by using the output of the letter-by-letter strategy to modify the mapping of the parallel orthographic code onto phonology.”

Semantically opaque and pseudo-complex primes produce larger facilitation than stem-plus-non-suffix primes.

“and significantly larger facilitation than primes consisting of the stem plus a non-suffix ending (scandal–scan).”

• cites Rastle and Davis, 2008Not matched

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Meta-analyses show that across studies, semantically transparent primes produce significantly larger effects than opaque primes.

“Although these reports of significant effects of semantic transparency appear isolated relative to the numerous reports of non-significant differences, recent meta-analyses by Feldman et al. (2009) and Davis and Rastle (2010) show that despite the non-significance in the majority of individual studies, the effect of semantically transparent primes is indeed significantly larger than that of opaque”

• cites Feldman et al., 2009Not matched

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• cites Davis and Rastle, 2010Not matched

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True derived word primes and complex pseudoword primes show similar priming effects.

“Furthermore, similar effects have also been found when comparing true derived word primes (worker–work) and complex pseudoword primes (cornity–corn)”

• cites Longtin and Meunier, 2005Not matched

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• cites Morris et al., 2011Not matched

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Associations between sublexical orthographic and phonological representations arise via supervised learning.

“Finally, we follow Zorzi et al., (1998) and Perry et al. (2007) in proposing that the associations established between sublexical orthographic and phonological representations (such as graphemes and phonemes) arise via supervised learning.”

• cites Zorzi et al., 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Perry et al., 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Within the dual-route approach, Semitic words are processed via fine-grained orthographic processing, enabling accurate detection of tri-consonantal roots.

“Within the framework of our dual-route approach, this would imply that Semitic words are processed via fine-grained orthographic processing, which would enable the accurate detection of tri-consonantal roots.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two processing routes are not subject to any on-line control mechanism that could disable one or the other route.

Apart from initial sight vocabulary, phonological recoding is the essential first step in reading acquisition.

“Apart from the initial acquisition of a small sight vocabulary (involving the most frequently occurring words), we agree with Share (1995) and others that phonological recoding is the essential first step in reading acquisition (e.g., Ehri, 1992).”

• cites Share, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ehri, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Standard TL priming effects are not found in Semitic languages for true Semitic words.

“Finally, it is interesting to note the fact that standard TL priming effects are not found in Semitic languages, at least for the true Semitic words of these languages (Velan and Frost, 2009, 2011; Perea et al., 2010).”

• cites Velan and Frost, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Velan and Frost, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Perea et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Development of parallel orthographic processing reduces word length effects.

“Among the empirical consequences of the development of parallel orthographic processing are: (1) a reduction in the effects of word length (e.g., Aghababian and Nazir, 2000; Bijeljac-Babic et al., 2004; Acha and Perea, 2008)”

• cites Aghababian and Nazir, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bijeljac-Babic et al., 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Acha and Perea, 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The distinction between Semitic and Indo-European reading is quantitative rather than qualitative.

“This is therefore more a quantitative than a qualitative distinction”

Unsupervised learning algorithms such as Self-Organizing Maps and Adaptive Resonance Theory provide mechanisms for orthographic chunking from parallel letter input.

“Unsupervised learning algorithms, such as implemented in Self-Organizing Maps (e.g., Kohonen, 1982; Dufau et al., 2010) or Adaptive Resonance Theory (e.g., Grossberg, 1987; Glotin et al., 2010), provide specific mechanisms for performing orthographic chunking on the basis of a parallel letter input.”

• cites Kohonen, 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dufau et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Grossberg, 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Semitic root-derived words are predominantly processed via the fine-grained route.

“Semitic root-derived words, on the other hand, would be predominantly processed via the fine-grained route.”

The nature of the two sublexical codes is determined by constraints from optimizing letter-to-meaning mapping during reading.

“The nature of the two types of sublexical location-invariant orthographic codes that are hypothesized in our approach, is thought to be determined by the constraints imposed by the general goal of optimizing the mapping of letters onto meaning while learning to read.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The nature of the two sublexical location-invariant orthographic codes is determined by constraints from the general goal of optimizing the mapping of letters onto meaning during reading acquisition.

Morphology influences visual word recognition through fast and automatic morpho-orthographic segmentation.

“On the basis of these results, it is commonly agreed that morphology influences visual word recognition through fast and automatic morpho-orthographic segmentation (see Rastle and Davis, 2008, for a review of the findings).”

• cites Rastle and Davis, 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Hebrew words with an existing verbal pattern and a non-productive or pseudo-root produce priming effects intermediate between root-derived and morphologically simple non-Semitic words.

“Velan and Frost (2011) reported the results of an interesting intermediate case of Hebrew words that have an existing verbal pattern combined with a non-productive or pseudo-root. These words were found to produce a pattern of priming effects lying in between the root-derived words and the morphologically simple non-Semitic words.”

• cites Velan and Frost, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The mechanism for coarse-grained letter-position coding and the mechanism for fine-grained affix detection are not the same.

“In sum, the key idea behind our dual-route proposal when applied to morphological processing, is that the mechanism that learns that the presence of the letter F somewhere before the letter R is a good indication that the whole-word being processed is “farmer” or “farm,” is not the same mechanism that learns that there is an E just before a final R, and that this combination of letters has a”

Frequently co-occurring groups of letters often represent the orthographic equivalent of phonemes and morphemes.

“Frequently co-occurring groups of letters often represent the orthographic equivalent of phonemes and morphemes.”

Attention is a critical factor in learning dependencies among elements.

“Recent research suggests that attention might be a critical factor in learning dependencies among elements (e.g., Pacton and Perruchet, 2008; see Le Pelley, 2010, for a review of the evidence).”

• cites Pacton and Perruchet, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Le Pelley, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Coarse-grained orthographic processing feeds activation to whole-word orthographic representations independently of morphological structure.

“At the same time, coarse-grained orthographic processing also feeds forward activation to whole-word orthographic representations, but independently of the morphological structure of the stimulus.”

The fine-grained processing route provides access to semantics via phonological and morphological representations.

“This is the fine-grained processing route that provides access to semantics via phonological and morphological representations.”

Morpho-orthographic segmentation is achieved via fine-grained orthographic processing, which feeds activation to compatible whole-word orthographic representations.

“Morpho-orthographic segmentation is achieved via fine-grained orthographic processing, which then feeds activation forward to compatible whole-word orthographic representations.”

The utility of a ventral-dorsal distinction in describing projections is called into question because phonological processing is associated with both frontal and dorsal projections.

“Given that phonological processing is associated with both projections from fusiform to frontal regions (pars opercularis) and projections from fusiform to dorsal regions, the utility of a ventral–dorsal distinction in describing these projections is called into question.”

The mechanisms for sublexical conversion of print to sound in skilled reading are not the same as the early serial mechanisms used by beginning readers.

“In line with this proposition, and as argued in our account of reading development (see above), the mechanisms involved in sublexical conversion of print to sound in skilled reading are thought not to be the same as the very early serial mechanisms used by beginning readers.”

Increased sensitivity to orthographic structure could reflect increases in the size of both coarse-grained and fine-grained orthographic representations.

“The increased sensitivity to orthographic structure could reflect both an increase in the size of coarse-grained orthographic representations (e.g., open n-grams, with increasing n), and the increase in size of fine-grained orthographic representations (e.g., graphemes and morphemes of increasing length).”