The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 45 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Digitally encoded DNA nanostructures for multiplexed, single-molecule protein sensing with nanopores
Abstract
The simultaneous detection of a large number of different analytes is important in bionanotechnology research and in diagnostic applications. Nanopore sensing is an attractive method in this regard as the approach can be integrated into small, portable device architectures, and there is significant potential for detecting multiple sub-populations in a sample. Here, we show that highly multiplexed sensing of single molecules can be achieved with solid-state nanopores by using digitally encoded DNA nanostructures. Based on the principles of DNA origami, we designed a library of DNA nanostructures in which each member contains a unique barcode; each bit in the barcode is signalled by the presence or absence of multiple DNA dumbbell hairpins. We show that a 3-bit barcode can be assigned with 94% accuracy by electrophoretically driving the DNA structures through a solid-state nanopore. Select members of the library were then functionalized to detect a single, specific antibody through antigen presentation at designed positions on the DNA. This allows us to simultaneously detect four different antibodies of the same isotype at nanomolar concentration levels.
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“Conversely, in regards to nanopore reads of labeled DNA, each label is read in [10–1; 101] ms.”
From Emerging Approaches to DNA Data Storage: Challenges and Prospects (2022) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“The authors used conical quartz nanopores with diameters of ∼14 nm for a 3-bit barcode that could be assigned with 94% accuracy.”
From Emerging Approaches to DNA Data Storage: Challenges and Prospects (2022) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“The use of nanopores to read out digital information encoded in DNA nanostructures was demonstrated by Bell and Keyser, who fabricated “DNA barcodes” to capture proteins.21”
From Emerging Approaches to DNA Data Storage: Challenges and Prospects (2022) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“More recently, through the use of long DNA backbones as in DNA origami, the organization of DNA protrusions has been used to produce three-dimensional DNA barcodes21 or hard drives that may be read using solid-state nanopores.”
From Emerging Approaches to DNA Data Storage: Challenges and Prospects (2022) · cites this paper as [21]
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The applications of nanopores in studies of proteins
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“Using a similar idea, Bell and Keyser [105] designed a DNA nanostructure library based on the principles of DNA origami in which each member has a unique barcode, and each bit on a bar code is represented by the presence or absence of a DNA dumbbell hairpin.”
MethodMonolithic Fabrication of NPN/SiNx Dual Membrane Cavity for Nanopore‐Based DNA Sensing
Madejski, G. R., Briggs, K., DesOrmeaux, J. S., Miller, J. J., Roussie, J. A., Tabard‐Cossa, V., & McGrath, J. L. (2019) · Advanced Materials Interfaces · doi:10.1002/admi.201900684 · Cited by 12
Cation dependent electroosmotic flow in glass nanopores
Hugh, J. M., Andresen, K., & Keyser, U. F. (2019) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/1.5116760 · Cited by 12
Self-citationUnderstanding electrical conduction and nanopore formation during controlled breakdown
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The combination of DNA nanostructures and materials for highly sensitive electrochemical detection
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BackgroundActive learning for efficient analysis of high-throughput nanopore data
Guan, X., Li, Z., Zhou, Y., Shao, W., & Zhang, D. (2022) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btac764 · Cited by 11
“This work applies several advanced active learning technologies to the nanopore data, including the RNA classification dataset (RNA-CD) and the Oxford Nanopore Technologies barcode dataset (ONT-BD).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSolid‐State Glass Nanopipettes: Functionalization and Applications
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“As a result, current investigations into molecular translocation characteristics have primarily focused on information extracted from the amplitude and duration of blockade signals 54,55 .”
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Pulley Effect in the Capture of DNA Translocation through Solid-State Nanopores
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“, 2016) (Figure 2E), capturing dynamic processes such as DNA-protein interaction (Bell and Keyser, 2016) and nucleic acid analysis (Venkatesan and Bashir, 2011) as well as detection of peptides and proteins (Yusko et al.”
BackgroundFolding Dynamics of Linear ssDNA–dsDNA Heterostructures through Solid-State Nanopores
Mensing, P., Charron, M., Bouhamidi, M. Y., & Tabard‐Cossa, V. (2025) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/acs.macromol.5c00119 · Cited by 7
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A Closed-Type Wireless Nanopore Electrode for Analyzing Single Nanoparticles
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Solid-State Nanopore for Molecular Detection
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“Another innovative approach to detect DNA or protein structure is using DNA carrier [71, 110, 181].”
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Lee, S., Godhulayyagari, S., Nguyen, S. T., Lu, J. K., Ebrahimi, S. B., & Samanta, D. (2022) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.202202211 · Cited by 7
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Polymerase Elongation onto Patterned DNA for Random Accessed DNA Data Storage
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“However, the DNA sequences can be extended to diverse big data, according to the increased sequence length [57, 58] or DNA pool complexity [59].”
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“51 − 65 DNA nanotechnology has been used to create carriers that can bind target proteins for subsequent readout by a nanopore, 66 − 71 and recent work with bead-based immuno-assays have pushed the limits of sensitivity for specific target proteins down to the femtomolar range with a single…”
Comparative Benchmarking of Glass and Silicon Nitride Nanopores for Single-Molecule Detection
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Self-citationForce-induced unzipping of DNA in the presence of solvent molecules
Mathur, N., Singh, A., & Singh, N. K. (2024) · Biophysical Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.bpc.2024.107175 · Cited by 6
Yin, B., Fang, S., Wu, B., Ma, W., Zhou, D., Yin, Y., Tian, R., He, S., Huang, J., Xie, W., et al. (2024) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.4c05605 · Cited by 6
Structure-flexible DNA origami translocation through a solid-state nanopore
Yang, J., Zhao, N., Liang, Y., Lu, Z., & Zhang, C. (2021) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d1ra04267j · Cited by 6
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Engineering biological nanopores for proteomics study
Huang, K. (2019) · doi:10.33612/diss.102598418 · Cited by 6
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“16,38,39 For both types of nanostructures, DNA oligonucleotides ( ≈ 38 nucleotides) were added in excess to ensure duplex formation.”
Self-citationBrauburger, S., & Keyser, U. F. (2026) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2026.03.002 · Cited by 6
Self-citationSynthesis of length-tunable DNA carriers for nanopore sensing
Roelen, Z., & Tabard‐Cossa, V. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0290559 · Cited by 5
“An innovative way of signalling target specificity in this system is with the concept of “barcoding” where the particular target interaction being probed by a carrier is labelled by a nanopore-readable structure (“barcode”) at a dedicated region in the sequence [8,16].”
Hybrid microchannel-solid state micropore device for fast and optical cell detection
Olmos, C. M., Rosero, G., Fernández, T., Booth, R., Der, M., Cabaleiro, J. M., Debut, A., Cumbal, L. H., Pérez, M., & Lerner, B. (2020) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/c9ra09939e · Cited by 5
Discriminating protein tags on a dsDNA construct using a Dual Nanopore Device
Seth, S., Rand, A. C., Reisner, W., Dunbar, W. B., SLADEK, R. M., & Bhattacharya, A. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-14609-9 · Cited by 5
“no folds are present), the feature blockades can also provide information regarding the feature’s binding position with respect to the molecule’s underlying sequence, or the relative distance of the given feature from other features [7, 10].”
BackgroundXie, Y., Li, J., Zhang, Z., Meng, B., Dai, S., Zhou, Y., Kennedy, E., Jiao, N., Chen, H. I., & Dong, Z. (2025) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btaf657 · Cited by 4
“The original literature (Bell and Keyser 2016) presented a statistical analysis method referred to as Bell&Keyser and a human expert recognition methods referred to as Human.”
Supramolecular Interactions Modulate RNA:DNA Folding Observed via Nanopore Sensing
Schmidt, T. T., Earle, M. K., Patiño‐Guillén, G., Li, Y., Alexii, R., Baumberg, J. J., Keyser, U. F., & Platnich, C. M. (2025) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.202508917 · Cited by 3
Self-citationFunctional Nanopores Enabled with DNA
Xing, Y., Rottensteiner, A., Ciccone, J., & Howorka, S. (2023) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.202303103 · Cited by 4
Kaushik, S., Mahadeva, M., Kandhasamy, D. M., Sundaramurthy, V., & Soni, G. V. (2020) · ACS Sensors · doi:10.1021/acssensors.0c01302 · Cited by 4
Channel Capacity Analysis of DNA-based Molecular Communication with Length Encoding Mechanism
Xie, J., Liu, Q., Yang, K., & Lin, L. (2021) · KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems · doi:10.3837/tiis.2021.08.012 · Cited by 5
“Recently, the technology of manipulating DNA is developing in an unprecedented pace, and this technology enable us to synthesize DNA molecules as needed in a quicker and more costeffective way [10][11].”
BackgroundParallel DNA circuits by autocatalytic strand displacement and nanopore readout
Zhu, J., Kong, J., Keyser, U. F., & Wang, E. (2022) · Nanoscale · doi:10.1039/d2nr04048d · Cited by 4
Self-citationT-S2Inet: Transformer-based sequence-to-image network for accurate nanopore sequence recognition
Guan, X., Shao, W., & Zhang, D. (2024) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btae083 · Cited by 4
“In contrast, the data type of the ONT barcode classification problem is the same (Bell and Keyser 2016, Misiunas et al. 2018).”
Target-controlled liposome amplification for versatile nanopore analysis
Tian, L., Wang, Y., & Kang, X. (2019) · Chemical Communications · doi:10.1039/c9cc00285e · Cited by 4
Methods for Single-Biomolecule Translocation Event Detection From Nanopore Current Signal: A Review
Upretee, P., Botermans, W., Martens, K. M., Marion, S., Fostier, J., & Madhu, N. (2025) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2025.3551262 · Cited by 3
“Nanopore sequencing offers numerous benefits over other sequencing technologies, including long reads, real-time sequencing, portability, and low input requirements [4], [5], [6], [7], [8].”
Voltage-matrix nanopore profiling for the discrimination of protein mixtures
Akita, R., Lysenko, A., Boroevich, K. A., Yokota, T., Kawai, D., Iizuka, R., Tsunoda, T., & Uemura, S. (2025) · Chemical Science · doi:10.1039/d5sc05182g · Cited by 3
Visualizing and Quantifying microRNA‐Induced DNA Origami Separation at the Nanoscale
Chau, C. C. C., Gupta, V., Heath, G. R., Wälti, C., & Actis, P. (2026) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.6443787 · Cited by 3
Hugh, J. M., Makarchuk, S., Mozheiko, D., Fernández‐Villegas, A., Schierle, G. S. K., Kaminski, C. F., Keyser, U. F., Holcman, D., & Rouach, N. (2023) · Nanoscale · doi:10.1039/d2nr03475a · Cited by 3
Self-citationUpretee, P., Santermans, S., Martens, K. M., Gevers, J., Marion, S., den Bosch, W. V., Fostier, J., & Madhu, N. (2023) · European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO) · doi:10.23919/eusipco58844.2023.10289805 · Cited by 3
“In the work by the Keyser group [3], [4] the DNA origami method is used to create the barcode molecules.”
MethodSolid-State Nanopores for Biomolecular Analysis and Detection
Stuber, A., Schlotter, T., Hengsteler, J., & Nakatsuka, N. (2023) · Advances in biochemical engineering, biotechnology · doi:10.1007/10_2023_240 · Cited by 3
The Advance of Plasmonic-Electric Nanopipette Sensing in Single Cells
Cao, Y. Z., Yu, Y., Jiang, Q., Sun, Y., Mao, Z., Wang, J., & Chen, F. (2021) · Current Pharmacology Reports · doi:10.1007/s40495-021-00249-6 · Cited by 3
Wang, Z., Liu, Z., Dempwolf, W., Molle, J., Kanehira, Y., Kogikoski, S., Etzkorn, M., Bald, I., Stosch, R., & Wundrack, S. (2023) · ACS Applied Nano Materials · doi:10.1021/acsanm.3c01776 · Cited by 3
Sterically Enhanced Control of Enzyme‐Assisted DNA Assembly**
Irving, O. J., Matthews, L., Coulthard, S., Neely, R. K., Grant, M. M., & Albrecht, T. (2023) · ChemBioChem · doi:10.1002/cbic.202300361 · Cited by 3
“This makes the process unnecessarily complex and potentially costly (13, 19, 31).”
BackgroundEmpowering protein single-molecule sequencing: nanopore technology toward sensing gene sequences
Gao, S., Huang, X., Zhang, X., Yuan, Z., Chen, H., Li, Z., El‐Mesery, H. S., Shi, J., & Zou, X. (2025) · Analytical Methods · doi:10.1039/d5ay00572h · Cited by 4
Modeling single-molecule stochastic transport for DNA exo-sequencing in nanopore sensors
Stadlbauer, B., Mitscha-Baude, G., & Heitzinger, C. (2019) · Nanotechnology · doi:10.1088/1361-6528/ab513e · Cited by 3
Single-molecule electrochemistry
Fan, Y., Barlow, S. T., & Zhang, B. (2021) · Frontiers of nanoscience · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820055-1.00011-3 · Cited by 3
Secure data storage on DNA hard drivesPreprint
Chen, K., Zhu, J., Bošković, F., & Keyser, U. F. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/857748 · Cited by 5
“The information encoded in 3D structures of these molecules can be conveniently read by single-molecule methods such as nanopore sensing (15-19).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSimultaneous identification of viruses and viral variants with programmable DNA nanobaitPreprint
Bošković, F., Zhu, J., Tivony, R., Ohmann, A., Chen, K., Alawami, M. F., Dordevic, D. M., Ermann, N., Dias, J. P., Fairhead, M., et al. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.11.05.21265890 · Cited by 3
Self-citationFoster, J. C., Pham, B., Pham, R., Kim, M., Moore, M. D., & Chen, M. (2022) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.202214566 · Cited by 2
Solid-state nanopore detection of metal ions via a DNAzyme–Catalytic Hairpin Assembly reaction
Wang, Y., Shao, L., Yu, C., Li, Y., Wu, R., Yu, J. Z., Zhou, L., Wang, T., Zhao, Y. C., Zhu, J., et al. (2025) · Chemical Communications · doi:10.1039/d5cc03429a · Cited by 2
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“This technique finds extensive utility ranging from DNA computing (3, 4, 64, 65), to gene expression manipulation in synthetic biology (66 – 68) and clinical biosensing (69 – 72) (including solid state nano-pore (72)).”
Jiang, Y., Chu, B., Ma, W., Liu, M., Zhang, S., & Xi, D. (2026) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.5c06310 · Cited by 2
DNA Nanoarray for Multiplexed RNA Detection With Single‐Molecule Readout
Li, Y., Wang, Y., Yu, C., Hou, S., Mylona, E., Naydenova, P., Zhao, J. Z., Yuan, H., Duan, J., Runge, H. F. P., et al. (2026) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.75319 · Cited by 2
“Recent advances in solid-state nanopores have demonstrated their ability to resolve structural barcodes, RNA isoforms, and molecular complexes [ 24–26 ], suggesting the potential to integrate nanopore sensing with programmable array architectures.”
InfluentialSelf-citationReconfigurable Multichannel Glass Nanopores Speed up DNA and MicroRNA Detection
Liu, Z., Li, Y. T., Liu, Y., Nie, Y., Hu, R., Keyser, U. F., & Chen, K. (2026) · Nano Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c05670 · Cited by 2
Self-citationQuantification of disease-associated RNA tandem repeats by nanopore sensing
Patiño‐Guillén, G., Pešović, J., Panić, M., Earle, M. K., Ninkovic, A., Petrusca, S., Pavicevic, D. S., Keyser, U. F., & Bošković, F. (2026) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-026-72819-5 · Cited by 3
“We positioned tandem repeats towards the 5 ’ end.”
Self-citationModeling pyramidal silicon nanopores with effective ion transport
Xiang, F., Dong, M., Zhang, W., Liang, S., & Guan, W. (2022) · Nanotechnology · doi:10.1088/1361-6528/ac8c9c · Cited by 2
“At present, the widely used methods of nanopore fabrication include focused electron/ion beam [7, 12], laser-assisted pulling [6, 13], tracked etching [14, 15] and controlled breakdown [16, 17].”
Optimizing the Single-Molecule Counting Process of Solid-State Nanopores
Charron, M. (2020) · uO Research (University of Ottawa) · doi:10.20381/ruor-24361 · Cited by 2
Fabricating Solid-State Nanopores for Single-Molecule Sensing
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Nanopore Device for Single-Molecule Sensing Method and Its Application
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Brownian motion data augmentation: a method to push neural network performance on nanopore sensors
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“One illustrative example is the case of digitally multiplexing reads of nanopore [18].”
BackgroundDNA Helix Bundle‐Encoded Multi‐Bit Information Readout by Sapphire‐Supported Nanopores
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Constructing a Nanopipette-Based DNA Electromechanical Device
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Label Type Influence on DNA Translocation Velocity in Solid-State Nanopores
Brauburger, S., Schmidt, T. T., Bošković, F., & Keyser, U. F. (2026) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.6c05303 · Cited by 1
Self-citationPushing the resolution of dCas9 barcodes for multiplexed DNA identification with nanopore sensors
Weckman, N. E., Ermann, N., Gutierrez, R., Chen, K., Graham, J. E., Heron, A., & Keyser, U. F. (2019) · Proceedings of IEEE Sensors/Proceedings of IEEE Sensors ... · doi:10.1109/sensors43011.2019.8956643 · Cited by 1
Self-citationNon‐binary Encoded Nucleic Acid Barcodes Directly Readable by a Nanopore
Yan, S., Wang, L., Wang, Y., Cao, Z., Zhang, S., Du, X., Fan, P., Zhang, P., Chen, H., & Huang, S. (2022) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.202116482 · Cited by 1
Solid-State Nanopore Sensing Enhanced by Designed DNA Nanostructures
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Bell, N. A. W., & Keyser, U. F.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bell, Nicholas A. W.
- Keyser, Ulrich F.
- Venue
- Nature Nanotechnology
- Published
- 2016-04-04
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 645-651
- ISSN
- 1748-3387 (ISSN-L)
- 1748-3395
- OpenAlex
- W2329887558
- Cited by
- 345
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 10
- FWCI
- 18.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Nanotechnology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Nanopore and Nanochannel Transport Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Advanced biosensing and bioanalysis techniques
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Analytical Chemistry › Electrochemical sensors and biosensors
- Keywords
- DNA nanostructures, DNA origami, solid-state nanopores, nanopore sensing, multiplexed protein detection, single-molecule detection, DNA barcodes, antibody detection, antigen presentation
- MeSH terms
- Binding Sites, DNA, Proteins, Nanotechnology, Nanostructures, Nanopores
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