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Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil
Open accessAbstract
Remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils is critical due to their persistent toxicity and threat to food security and ecosystem health. Therefore, a study was conducted during September to November 2024 to assess the phytoextraction potential of Madagascar Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) for cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in soils spiked with varying concentrations of battery scrap waste (BSW: 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4% w/w). A hybrid mechanistic-kinetic (HMK) model was developed by the integration of the Freundlich isotherm and Michaelis–Menten equations to predict bioavailable heavy metal concentrations and uptake by plants. The results showed that C. roseus had higher Cd and Pb accumulation in roots compared to shoots, with maximum concentrations of 21.504 mg/kg Cd and 43.123 mg/kg Pb observed at 4% BSW. However, increasing contamination levels significantly reduced metal removal efficiency (%), as evidenced by bioconcentration factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TF) values. Also, increasing the BSW dose significantly (p < 0.05) reduced C. roseus growth, reducing plant height, root length, biomass, chlorophyll, and carotenoid content due to heavy metal toxicity. On the other hand, Freundlich coefficients (Kf) and exponent (n) were useful in predicting bioavailable heavy metals. The Michaelis–Menten-based HMK model analysis showed higher maximum uptake rates (Vmax) for Pb in roots and shoots compared to Cd, while half-saturation constant (Km) values were lower in shoots compared to roots. The developed models had high R2 and low mean absolute error (MAE), indicating goodness of fit. This study showed that C. roseus can be used for Cd and Pb phytoextraction from contaminated soils, thereby contributing to the restoration of agro-ecosystems.
Overview
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TL;DR
A 90-day greenhouse pot study found that *Catharanthus roseus* can phytoextract Cd and Pb from battery-scrap-waste-spiked soil, accumulating more metal in roots than shoots but with declining removal efficiency and growth at higher contamination. A hybrid Freundlich–Michaelis–Menten model predicted bioavailable soil Cd/Pb and plant uptake with high R² and low MAE.
Key findings
- *C. roseus* accumulated more Cd and Pb in roots than shoots; at 4% BSW, root Cd reached 21.504 mg/kg and root Pb 43.123 mg/kg, while shoot Cd was 12.441 mg/kg and shoot Pb 28.740 mg/kg.
- Removal efficiency fell as BSW increased: Cd declined from 33.33% in controls to 11.02% at 4% BSW, and Pb from 20.00% to 7.61%. BCF also decreased (Cd 0.342 to 0.141; Pb 0.201 to 0.092), while TF increased up to 1.733 for Cd and 1.500 for Pb at 4% BSW.
- Plant growth and physiology declined significantly with BSW: plant height decreased from 61.403 to 43.023 cm, root length from 24.832 to 11.582 cm, fresh biomass by 56.87%, dry biomass by 64.32%, chlorophyll from 2.404 to 1.165 mg/g, carotenoids from 1.184 to 0.457 mg/g, and RGR from 0.014 to 0.010 g/g/day.
- The hybrid mechanistic-kinetic model fit well: Freundlich R² was 0.998 for Cd and 0.996 for Pb; Michaelis–Menten Vmax was 31.940 mg/kg for Cd roots and 15.161 mg/kg for Cd shoots, and 94.756 mg/kg for Pb roots and 64.584 mg/kg for Pb shoots. Uptake predictions had R² of 0.987–0.998 and low residuals/MAE.
Methods
- Lab-scale pot experiment from September to November 2024 using soil spiked with battery scrap waste at 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4% w/w; 15 pots with 3 replicates per treatment, each containing 7 kg garden soil and one 15-day-old *C. roseus* seedling, grown for 90 days under controlled greenhouse conditions.
- Soil pH and organic matter were measured; total and bioavailable Cd/Pb in soil were determined by acid digestion and DTPA extraction, respectively, and plant root/shoot metals by HNO₃–H₂O₂ digestion, all quantified by ICP-OES. Plant height, root length, fresh/dry weight, leaf number, chlorophyll, and carotenoids were recorded, and removal efficiency, BCF, TF, and RGR calculated.
- A hybrid mechanistic-kinetic model integrated the Freundlich isotherm for bioavailable soil metals with Michaelis–Menten uptake kinetics, linearized via Freundlich log plots and Lineweaver–Burk plots; model performance was assessed with MAE and R², and treatment differences tested by ANOVA with Tukey’s post-hoc test (p < 0.05).
Limitations
- The paper states further research is needed on the impact of heavy metals on plant biochemical and enzymatic responses and on identifying potential genes regulating uptake mechanisms.
- Evident from the text: the study is a 90-day greenhouse pot experiment using a single plant species, one soil/BSW type, and only Cd and Pb, with no field-scale or long-term validation.
- Evident from the text: model deviations were higher at elevated BSW concentrations, such as Pb root uptake at 4% BSW (observed 43.12 mg/kg vs predicted 45.74 mg/kg), and Pb had higher MAE than Cd, indicating greater variability in uptake predictions.
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In the paper
“Specifically, plant height was found to be decreased from 61.403 cm in the control to 43.023 cm at 4% BSW, while root length declined from 24.832 to 11.582 cm, exhibiting impaired root elongation under elevated heavy metal stress.”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Effects on C. roseus plant growth
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Michaelis–Menten-based HMK model analysis showed higher maximum uptake rates (Vmax) for Pb in roots and shoots compared to Cd”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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In the paper
“while half-saturation constant (Km) values were lower in shoots compared to roots.”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Abstract
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For Cd, the Vmax was higher in roots (31.940 mg/kg) than shoots (15.16 mg/kg), indicating root-dominated Cd accumulation.”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Results and validation of the hybrid model
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, bioavailable Cd and Pb also increased significantly under BSW spiking from 36.972 mg/kg in 1% BSW to 113.301 mg/kg in 4% BSW treatment, respectively.”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Properties of soil spiked with battery scrap waste
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Properties of soil spiked with battery scrap waste
“bioavailable Cd and Pb also increased significantly under BSW spiking from 36.972 mg/kg in 1% BSW to 113.301 mg/kg in 4% BSW treatment”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Properties of soil spiked with battery scrap waste
“| 1% BSW | 41.082 ± 1.230b | 107.523 ± 3.74b | 10.074 ± 0.030b | 16.884 ± 0.101b | 7.505 ± 0.031b_ | 2.162 ± 0.035ab |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Properties of soil spiked with battery scrap waste
“a significant decrease in soil pH (from 7.213 to 8.142)”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Properties of soil spiked with battery scrap waste
“Additionally, increased pH may enhance the desorption of heavy metals”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Abstract
“half-saturation constant (Km) values were lower in shoots compared to roots”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Results and validation of the hybrid model
“| Pb | Shoot | Control | 0.013 | 0.017 | − 0.004 | 64.584 | 121.070 | 1.710 | 0.998 |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Results and validation of the hybrid model
“the residual values between observed and predicted uptake were minimal for Cd (< 2.029) and Pb (< 3.357)”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Results and validation of the hybrid model
“| Pb | Root | 3% | 35.051 | 38.43 | − 3.379 | 94.756 | 118.433 | 2.176 | 0.997 |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Results and discussion > Results and validation of the hybrid model
“for calculation of intercept (1/n) and Kf values”
§ Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil > Materials and methods > Model development and validation
“linear regression analysis was performed to find the slope (1/n) and the intercept log(Kf).”
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Citations
Cites
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Cited by
Islam, R., Smith, N., Jang, B. W. ‐., & Guo, L. (2026) · Plants · doi:10.3390/plants15050848 · Cited by 3
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Metadata
- Authors
- AL-Huqail, A. A., Goala, M., Arya, A. K., Kumar, P., Gupta, D., Gaur, S. K., & Širić, I.
- Affiliations
- Graphic Era University (IN)
- Society for AgroEnvironmental Sustainability (IN)
- COER University (IN)
- University of Zagreb (HR)
- Corresponding author
- Širić, Ivan
- Venue
- Scientific Reports
- Published
- 2025-05-26
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 18291-18291
- ISSN
- 2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC12106638
- OpenAlex
- W4410724115
- Cited by
- 2
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2
- FWCI
- 0.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 (tdm)
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 (vor)
- Locations
- Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University (PNURSP2025R93)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Heavy metals in environment
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Heavy Metal Pollution Remediation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Environmental and Analytical Chemistry Studies
- Keywords
- phytoextraction, Catharanthus roseus, cadmium, lead, heavy metal-contaminated soil, Freundlich isotherm, Michaelis-Menten kinetics, metal bioavailability, bioconcentration factor, translocation factor, plant growth inhibition, heavy metal toxicity, soil remediation
- MeSH terms
- Biodegradation, Environmental, Cadmium, Kinetics, Lead, Soil, Soil Pollutants, Plant Roots, Plant Shoots, Catharanthus
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- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1038/s41598-025-03080-x
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- AL-Huqail, A. A., Goala, M., Arya, A. K., Kumar, P., Gupta, D., Gaur, S. K., & Širić, I. (2025). Mechanistic and kinetic modeling of cadmium and lead phytoextraction by Madagascar Periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don] in battery waste contaminated soil. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-03080-x
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