Covid-19 Vaccine Effectiveness and the Test-Negative Design

The test-negative design for estimating influenza vaccine effectiveness

Jackson, M. L., & Nelson, J. C. (2013) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.02.053 · Cited by 510

Prevention and Attenuation of Covid-19 with the BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 Vaccines

Thompson, M. G., Burgess, J. L., Naleway, A. L., Tyner, H. L., Yoon, S. K., Meece, J. K., Olsho, L. E. W., Caban-Martinez, A. J., Fowlkes, A., Lutrick, K., et al. (2021) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa2107058 · Cited by 482

Effectiveness of Covid-19 Vaccines in Ambulatory and Inpatient Care Settings

Thompson, M. G., Stenehjem, E. A., Grannis, S. J., Ball, S. W., Naleway, A. L., Ong, T. C., DeSilva, M. B., Natarajan, K., Bozio, C. H., Lewis, N., et al. (2021) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa2110362 · Cited by 467

Theoretical Basis of the Test-Negative Study Design for Assessment of Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness

Sullivan, S. G., Tchetgen, E. J. T., & Cowling, B. J. (2016) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kww064 · Cited by 337

Understanding COVID-19 vaccine efficacy

Lipsitch, M., & Dean, N. E. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abe5938 · Cited by 230

The Use of Test-negative Controls to Monitor Vaccine Effectiveness

Chua, H., Feng, S., Lewnard, J. A., Sullivan, S. G., Blyth, C. C., Lipsitch, M., & Cowling, B. J. (2019) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000001116 · Cited by 165

Theoretical Framework for Retrospective Studies of the Effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines

Lewnard, J. A., Patel, M. M., Jewell, N. P., Verani, J. R., Kobayashi, M., Tenforde, M. W., Dean, N. E., Cowling, B. J., & Lopman, B. A. (2021) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000001366 · Cited by 103

Test-Negative Designs

Vandenbroucke, J. P., & Pearce, N. E. (2019) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000001088 · Cited by 78

Vaccine effectiveness studies in the field

Evans, S. J. W., & Jewell, N. P. (2021) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejme2110605 · Cited by 65

Identifiability and Estimation Under the Test-negative Design With Population Controls With the Goal of Identifying Risk and Preventive Factors for SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Schnitzer, M. E., Harel, D., Ho, V., Koushik, A., & Merckx, J. (2021) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000001385 · Cited by 9

State-of-the-art learning COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness using LSTM

Shen, C., Lin, M., Lee, R., Dong, M., & Zhao, L. (2024) · Informatics in Medicine Unlocked · doi:10.1016/j.imu.2024.101561 · Cited by 3

Rates of SARS-CoV-2 Breakthrough Infection or Severe COVID-19 and Associated Risk Factors After Primary and Booster Vaccination Against COVID-19 in the Netherlands

van den Berg, J. M., Blom, M. T., Overbeek, J. A., Remmelzwaal, S., Herings, R. M. C., & Elders, P. J. M. (2025) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines13060564 · Cited by 3

Effectiveness of Nirsevimab in Preventing Respiratory Syncytial Virus-related Burden: A Test-negative Case-control Study in Infants With Bronchiolitis in Lombardy Region, Italy

Fusco, E., Loiodice, M., Romero, A., L’assainato, S., Banfi, A., Chiaffoni, G., Porro, C., Fabiano, V., Izzo, F., Giorgis, V. D., et al. (2025) · The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal · doi:10.1097/inf.0000000000004968 · Cited by 3

A Double Machine Learning Approach for the Evaluation of COVID‐19 Vaccine Effectiveness Under the Test‐Negative Design: Analysis of Québec Administrative Data

Jiang, C., Talbot, D. C., Carazo, S., & Schnitzer, M. E. (2025) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.70025 · Cited by 5

Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic – A Comprehensive Review of Demographics, Comorbidities, Vaccines, Therapeutic Development, Blood Type, and Long Covid

Bhattacharyya, A., Anand, S., & Rai Shesh, N. (2023) · Annals of Public Health Reports · doi:10.36959/856/540 · Cited by 2

To boost or not to boost: navigating post-pandemic COVID-19 vaccination

Goldberg, Y., & Huppert, A. (2023) · The Lancet Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/s2213-2600(23)00350-8 · Cited by 3

Hypothesis testing and sample size considerations for the test-negative design

Huo, Y., Yang, Y., Halloran, M. E., Longini, I. M., & Dean, N. E. (2024) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-024-02277-4 · Cited by 3

Ultra-rapid rollout vaccination with BNT162b2 to reduce SARS-CoV-2 infections in the general population

Tschiderer, L., Seekircher, L., Richter, L., von Laer, D., Lass‐Flörl, C., Forer, L., Schönherr, S., Krammer, F., Embacher-Aichhorn, S., Tilg, H., et al. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.105380 · Cited by 3

COVID-19 vaccination is associated with reduced non-COVID in-hospital mortality

Benbassat, J., Froom, P., & Shimoni, Z. (2022) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107326 · Cited by 3

Healthcare worker risk of COVID-19: A 20-month analysis of protective measures from vaccination and beyondPreprint

Yassi, A., Barker, S. J., Lockhart, K., Grant, J., Okpani, A. I., Sprague, S., Zungu, M., Lubin, S., & Sing, C. K. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.12.02.21267190 · Cited by 3

COVID‐19 Vaccine Effectiveness and the Evidence on Boosters: A Systematic Review (with Partial Evidence on the Omicron Variant)Preprint

Black, B. S., & Thaw, D. B. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4155493 · Cited by 3

Magnitude of Potential Biases in COVID-19 Vaccine Effectiveness Studies due to Differential Healthcare seeking following Home Testing: Implications for Test Negative Design StudiesPreprint

Qasmieh, S. A., Ferdinands, J. M., Chung, J. R., Wiegand, R. E., Flannery, B. L., Rane, M. S., & Nash, D. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.12.30.24319700 · Cited by 3

Early-Life Exposure to Acid-Suppressive Therapy and the Development of Celiac Disease Autoimmunity

Achler, T., Patalon, T., Gazit, S., Cohen, S., Shaoul, R. R., & Ben‐Tov, A. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.3376 · Cited by 2

The effect of SARS-CoV-2 testing on healthcare-seeking behaviour at primary care level

van Hagen, C. C. E., Vos, E. R. A., Delaunay, C. L., de Melker, H. E., Kissling, E., & Knol, M. J. (2026) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyag031 · Cited by 2

Association of public health and social measures with vaccine effectiveness

Tsang, T. K., Sullivan, S. G., Huang, X., Wang, C., Li-ping, P., Yang, B., & Cowling, B. J. (2026) · Nature Health · doi:10.1038/s44360-026-00127-9 · Cited by 2

Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness and Test-Negative Study Design Within the Department of Defense

Sayers, D. R., & Iskander, J. K. (2023) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/usac436 · Cited by 2

Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines against infection in Japan: A test-negative study from the VENUS study

Tamada, Y., Takeuchi, K., Kusama, T., Maeda, M., Murata, F., Osaka, K., & Fukuda, H. (2023) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.07.035 · Cited by 2

Identification and Estimation of Vaccine Effectiveness in the Test-Negative Design Under Equi-confounding

Boyer, C., Li, K. Q., Shi, X., & Tchetgen, E. J. T. (2025) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000001926 · Cited by 4

Genomic insights into mRNA COVID-19 vaccines efficacy: Linking genetic polymorphisms to waning immunity

Hsieh, M.-J., Tsai, P., Chiang, P.-H., Kao, Z.-K., Zhuang, Z.-Q., Hsieh, A., Ho, H., Chiou, S., Liang, K., & Chen, Y. (2024) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2024.2399382 · Cited by 2

Vaccine effectiveness and duration of protection against symptomatic and severe Covid-19 during the first year of vaccination in FrancePreprint

Castillo, M. S., Khaoua, H., & Courtejoie, N. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.02.17.22270791 · Cited by 2

Impact of Vaccination, Prior Infection, and Therapy on Delta and Omicron VariantsPreprint

Wang, X., Zein, J., Ji, X., & Lin, D.-Y. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.03.24.22272901 · Cited by 2

BNT162b2 effectiveness against Delta & Omicron variants in teens by dosing interval and durationPreprint

Ionescu, I. G., Skowronski, D. M., Sauvageau, C., Chuang, E., Ouakki, M., Kim, S. H., & Serres, G. D. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.06.27.22276790 · Cited by 2

Use of whole genome sequencing to estimate the contribution of immune evasion and waning immunity to decreasing COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness during alpha and delta variant wavesPreprint

Lind, M. L., Copin, R., McCarthy, S., Coppi, A. C., Warner, F., Ferguson, D. J. P., Duckwall, C., Borg, R., Muenker, M. C., Overton, J. D., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.08.25.22278443 · Cited by 2

The effect of SARS-CoV-2 testing on healthcare seeking behaviour at primary care level: implications for COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness estimates in test-negative design studiesPreprint

van Hagen, C. C. E., Vos, E. R. A., Delaunay, C. L., de Melker, H. E., Kissling, E., & Knol, M. J. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.03.31.25324928 · Cited by 2

Regulatory agencies disregard real-world effectiveness evidence on product labels beyond what is reasonable

Dal‐Ré, R., Porcher, R., Rosendaal, F. R., & Schwarzer‐Daum, B. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2022.11.007 · Cited by 1

Initial Effectiveness of mRNA-1273 Against SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Hospitalization in Young Children

Aglipay, M., Maguire, J. L., Swayze, S., Tuite, A. R., Mamdani, M., Keown‐Stoneman, C. D. G., Birken, C. S., & Kwong, J. C. (2024) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofae718 · Cited by 1

Timely Personalized Exposure Risk Estimation for Air Travelers

Chan, C., & Wen, T. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems · doi:10.1109/tcss.2024.3523336 · Cited by 1

Validating and leveraging non-SARS-CoV-2 respiratory infection as a negative control outcome in a phase 3 COVID-19 vaccine trial with extended observational follow-up

Ashby, E., Janes, H., Follmann, D. A., Gilbert, P. B., Zhou, H., Wang, X., Girard, B., Priddy, F. H., Kublin, J. G., Corey, L., et al. (2025) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwaf176 · Cited by 4

A Test-Negative Design for Immune Correlates Approximates a Traditional Exposure-Proximal Design but Requires Far Fewer Blood Samples

Follmann, D. A., Dang, L., Chu, E., Fintzi, J., Janes, H., Gilbert, P. B., Andrews, L. I. B., Serebryannyy, L., Carroll, R., Lin, B. C., et al. (2025) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiaf572 · Cited by 1

Statistical methods for estimating the protective effects of immune markers using test-negative designs

Middleton, C. E., & Larremore, D. B. (2025) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwaf280 · Cited by 1

2024-2025 COVID-19 Vaccine and Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events Among US Veterans

Cai, M., Xie, Y., & Al‐Aly, Z. (2026) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2026.1929 · Cited by 3

COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness studies in Nigeria: Quo vadis?

Akande, O. W., Igumbor, E. U., Elimian, K., Ohonsi, C., Nwozor, L., Oden, O., Ekpenyong, E. N., Ndodo, N. D., Ike, I. F., Egede, M., et al. (2022) · Journal of Global Health · doi:10.7189/jogh.12.03055 · Cited by 1

Evaluating COVID-19 Vaccines in the Era of Endemicity—Recency vs Reformulation

Mohan, G. S., Mina, M. J., & Ankomah, P. (2024) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2024.1637 · Cited by 1

Comment on Chandler et al. 23-Valent Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccination Does Not Prevent Community-Acquired Pneumonia Hospitalizations Due to Vaccine-Type Streptococcus pneumoniae. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 560

Cossrow, N., Joshi, R., Klinker, K. P., & Buchwald, U. K. (2022) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms10101987 · Cited by 1

Number Needed to Vaccinate to prevent one death: a propensity score matching approach to COVID-19 vaccine evaluation in the center of Iran (short communication)Preprint

Mandegari, Z., & Soodejani, M. T. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3278248/v1 · Cited by 1

Some principles for using epidemiologic study results to parameterize transmission modelsPreprint

Joshi, K., Kahn, R. J., Boyer, C., & Lipsitch, M. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.10.03.23296455 · Cited by 1

Effectiveness of rVSV-ZEBOV Vaccination During the 2018 - 2020 Ebola Virus Disease Epidemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: A Retrospective Observational AnalysisPreprint

Meakin, S. R., Camacho, A., Nsio, J. M., Kitenge, R., Coulborn, R. M., Gignoux, E., Johnson, J. K., Sterk, E., Musenga, E. M., Mustafa, S. H. B., et al. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4812493 · Cited by 1

Statistical Methods for Estimating the Protective Effects of Immune Markers Using Test-Negative DesignsPreprint

Middleton, C. E., & Larremore, D. B. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.04.05.25325304 · Cited by 1

An Ounce of COVID-19 Prevention: U.S. Census Evidence of Causal Effects of COVID-19 Vaccines on Health OutcomesPreprint

Subramanian, R. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3987311

Natural Capital Exploration and Coronavirus Disease Spread in 2020

Piao, X. (2022) · Theoretical Economics Letters · doi:10.4236/tel.2022.122022

Expert Review of Global Real-World Data on COVID-19 Vaccine Booster Effectiveness & Safety During the Omicron-dominant Phase of the PandemicPreprint

Solante, R., Álvarez, C., Burhan, E., Chariyalertsak, S., Chiu, N., Chuenkitmongkol, S., Dung, D. V., Hwang, K., Ibarra, J. O., Kiertiburanakul, S., et al. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2015733/v1

The Long-run Effects Of COVID-19 Vaccines on Health Outcomes of Elders: Panel-data Evidence from U.S. CensusPreprint

Subramanian, R. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2073308/v1

Mixed methods approach to examining the implementation experience of a phone-based health research survey investigating risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection in CaliforniaPreprint

Fukui, N., Li, S. S., DeGuzman, J. L., Myers, J. F., Openshaw, J. J., Sharma, A., Watt, J., Lewnard, J. A., Jain, S., Andrejko, K. L., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.02.27.23286454

mRNA-1273 vaccine effectiveness against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19-related hospitalization in children aged 6 months to 5 yearsPreprint

Aglipay, M., Maguire, J. L., Swayze, S., Tuite, A. R., Mamdani, M., Keown‐Stoneman, C. D. G., Birken, C. S., & Kwong, J. C. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.06.27.23291933

Mixed methods approach to examining the implementation experience of a phone-based survey for a SARS-CoV-2 test-negative case-control study in California

Fukui, N., Li, S. S., DeGuzman, J. L., Myers, J. F., Openshaw, J. J., Sharma, A., Watt, J., Lewnard, J. A., Jain, S., Andrejko, K. L., et al. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0301070

Caveats regarding the test-negative design to study mpox risk factors and vaccine effectiveness

Núñez, I. (2024) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwae284

Correlation of Sars-Cov-2 IGG Antibody Levels with Viral Load Among Vaccine Breakthrough Infections: A Study From Rawalpindi

Shahzad, A., Ghani, E., Mansoor, E., Rathore, M. A., Niazi, S. K., & Ahmed, F. (2024) · Pakistan Armed Forces Medical Journal · doi:10.51253/pafmj.v74i4.10199

COVID-19 vaccination and lethality reduction: a prospective observational study in Venezuela during the last two waves

Forero-Peña, D. A., Leyva, J. L., Valenzuela, M. V., Omaña‐Ávila, Ó. D., Regalado-Gutiérrez, O. A., Mendoza-Millán, D. L., Sánchez-Ytriago, E. A., Hachem, A. C. L.-E., Farro, K. R., Maita, A. K., et al. (2024) · Discover Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12982-024-00259-x

The Effectiveness of COVID-19 Vaccines During the Pre-Omicron and Omicron Periods: A Retrospective Test-Negative Case–Control Study

Brambilla, R., Gili, R., Vigna‐Taglianti, F., Lenzi, J., Riccò, M., Burioni, R., Scarvaglieri, M., Rocco, R., Buttafuoco, V., Cristaudo, R. M. T. A., et al. (2024) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12111245

The Real-World Effectiveness of Inactivated COVID-19 Vaccines in Zimbabwe During the Omicron Variant Dominance: A Test-Negative Case–Control Study

Makadzange, T., Gundidza, P., Konono, K. C. C., Gurumani, M., & Ndhlovu, C. E. (2024) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12121303

Estimating Direct and Spillover Vaccine Effectiveness with Partial Interference under Test-Negative Design SamplingPreprint

Jiang, C., Fang, F., Talbot, D. C., & Schnitzer, M. E. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.02.24.25322826

Enhancing health security in Africa: Collaboration between public health institutes and academia

Kambugu, A. D., Ayebare, R. R., Kakooza, F., Kiragga, A. N., Tsegaye, A., Yeboah, G., Mbabazi, L., Muwonge, T., Shaweno, T., Dereje, N., et al. (2025) · Journal of Public Health in Africa · doi:10.4102/jphia.v16i1.780

COVID-19 vaccine uptake and effectiveness among people with recent history of injection drug use in British Columbia, Canada: A retrospective analysis

Wilton, J., García, H. A. V., Naveed, Z., Crabtree, A., Buxton, J. A., Wong, J., Krajden, M., Sbihi, H., & Janjua, N. Z. (2025) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2025.127423

Effectiveness of CoronaVac primary series with and without booster against hospitalized COVID-19 during the Omicron-predominant epidemic wave in the Philippines: a test-negative case–control study

Agrupis, K. A., Ylade, M. C., Yang, Q., Crisostomo, M. V., Daag, J. V., Magsakay, G. L., Lo, J. R., Florendo, K. L., Lopez, M. H. J., Enriquez, J. M., et al. (2025) · Expert Review of Vaccines · doi:10.1080/14760584.2025.2539889

Observational Studies: Common and Useful but with Several Important Limitations

Aggarwal, R., & ‎Sahni, P. (2025) · The National Medical Journal of India · doi:10.25259/nmji_1086_2025

Evidence, Opinion, and Uncertainty About COVID-19 Vaccines

Califf, R. M. (2025) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2025.5462

Durability of protection of ancestral-strain COVID-19 third- and fourth-dose vaccine boosters against Omicron XBB/XBB.1 and JN.1 symptomatic infection, hospitalisation and mortality in Indonesian adults (2023–2024): a test-negative case–control study

Wiratama, B. S., Oktaria, V., Indrihutami, K., Hardhantyo, M., Maula, A. W., Djasri, H., Dinari, R., Syairaji, M., Suwarti, S., Pradipta, A., et al. (2025) · The Lancet Regional Health - Southeast Asia · doi:10.1016/j.lansea.2025.100689

Risk factors for ICU admission due to severe acute respiratory infection in Brazil: A multicenter case-control study using national dataPreprint

de Paula, R. R. O., Cintra, P. R., Andrade, E. F., Pala, L. O. D. O., Murata, R. M., & Pereira, L. J. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.11.20.25340681

Improving Assessment of Vaccine Effectiveness by Coupling Test-negative Design Studies with Survival Models

Song, S., Hitchings, M. D. T., Yang, Y., & Longini, I. M. (2026) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000001972

COVID-19 Vaccination and Lethality Reduction: A Prospective Cohort Study in VenezuelaPreprint

Forero-Peña, D. A., Leyva, J. L., Valenzuela, M. V., Omaña-Ávila, Ó. D., Mendoza-Millán, D. L., Sánchez-Ytriago, E. A., Hachem, A. C. L.-E., Farro, K. R., Maita, A. K., González, R. D. C., et al. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3813947/v1

Additional file 1 of Hypothesis testing and sample size considerations for the test-negative design

Huo, Y., Yang, Y., Halloran, M. E., M, L. I., & Dean, N. E. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26749925

Additional file 1 of Addressing misclassification bias in vaccine effectiveness studies with an application to Covid-19

Eusebi, P., Speybroeck, N., Hartnack, S., Stærk‐Østergaard, J., Denwood, M. J., & Kostoulas, P. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26571748

Additional file 1 of Changing patterns of SARS-CoV-2 infection through Delta and Omicron waves by vaccination status, previous infection and neighbourhood deprivation: a cohort analysis of 2.7 M people

Green, M. A., Hungerford, D., Hughes, D. M., Garcia-Fiñana, M., Turtle, L., Cheyne, C. P., Ashton, M., Leeming, G., Semple, M. G., Singleton, A. D., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21629220

Additional file 1 of Bivalent mRNA vaccine effectiveness against COVID-19 among older adults in Japan: a test-negative study from the VENUS study

Tamada, Y., Takeuchi, K., Kusama, T., Maeda, M., Murata, F., Osaka, K., & Fukuda, H. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26673882

mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine Effectiveness Against Severe Outcomes Among Adults Hospitalized with COVID-19 from May 2021 to January 2023

Ess, G., Lew, A. S., Tippett, A., Salazar, L. W., Choi, C., Castro, K. D., Taylor, E. G., Reese, O., Momin, H., Ciric, C. R., et al. (2025) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines14010045

Methodological considerations for generating real-world evidence from epidemiological surveillance data in a Mexico–US border city

Ovalle-Marroquín, D. F., Pablos-Verdugo, A., Wong-Valenzuela, E. I., Zazueta, O. E., Bojórquez, I., Texcalac-Sangrador, J. L., & Schilmann, A. (2026) · Discover Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12982-026-01411-5

Impact of Maternal Immunization Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus on Hospitalizations Due to Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in Infants: A Multicenter Study in Argentina

Gentile, A., Juárez, M. D. V., Lución, M. F., Ensinck, G., Gregorio, G., Lopez, O., Pejito, M. N., Zuzel, P. Y., Lobertti, S., Gioiosa, A., et al. (2025) · The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal · doi:10.1097/inf.0000000000005045

Bayesian joint modelling framework linking antibody kinetics and test-negative vaccine effectiveness to study hybrid immunity across epidemic wavesPreprint

Benammar, A. (2026) · medRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.04.25.26351732

Why the Test-Negative Design Is Used for Routine Vaccine Monitoring

Dean, N. E. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2026.25157

Influenza Antibody Levels Associated With Laboratory-Confirmed Influenza in a Test-Negative Study Design, US Flu Vaccine Effectiveness Network, November 2018 to May 2019

Flannery, B. L., Chung, J. R., Holiday, C., Jefferson, S. N., Gaglani, M., Murthy, K., Zimmerman, R. K., Nowalk, M. P., Jackson, M. L., Wernli, K. J., et al. (2026) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiag371 · Cited by 2

Test-Negative Study Designs for Evaluating Vaccine Effectiveness

Dean, N. E., & Amin, A. B. (2024) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2024.5633 · Cited by 15

The Test-Negative Design for Assessing Vaccine Effectiveness.

Jewell, N. P. (2026) · PubMed · doi:10.2105/ajph.2026.308764

On Measuring Vaccine Effectiveness with Observational Study Designs

Habibzadeh, F., Habibzadeh, P., & Yadollahie, M. (2022) · Acta Medica Academica · doi:10.5644/ama2006-124.383 · Cited by 15

Evaluating COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness across epidemiologic designs: test-negative case-control versus retrospective cohort analyses in a nationwide study

Sukik, L., Paul, P., Ayoub, H. H., Coyle, P. V., Tang, P., Hasan, M. R., Yassine, H. M., Thani, A. A. A., Kanaani, Z. A., Al‐Kuwari, E., et al. (2026) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyag210

Proposed study design for estimating COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness in post-pandemic Taiwan

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