The DOI matches its Crossref record; 19 of the 19 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 27 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China
Open accessAbstract
Chemical analyses of ancient organics absorbed into pottery jars from the early Neolithic village of Jiahu in Henan province in China have revealed that a mixed fermented beverage of rice, honey, and fruit (hawthorn fruit and/or grape) was being produced as early as the seventh millennium before Christ (B.C.). This prehistoric drink paved the way for unique cereal beverages of the proto-historic second millennium B.C., remarkably preserved as liquids inside sealed bronze vessels of the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties. These findings provide direct evidence for fermented beverages in ancient Chinese culture, which were of considerable social, religious, and medical significance, and help elucidate their earliest descriptions in the Shang Dynasty oracle inscriptions.
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TL;DR
Chemical analyses of organic residues in Neolithic pottery from Jiahu and liquids sealed in Shang/Western Zhou bronze vessels show that fermented beverages were made in China by the seventh millennium B.C. and that production later shifted toward specialized mold-saccharified rice and millet wines. The Jiahu beverage was a mixed rice, honey, and fruit drink, while proto-historic bronze-vessel liquids were aromatic rice or millet wines.
Key findings
- Of 16 Jiahu pottery sherds analyzed, 13 were chemically similar and yielded evidence for a mixed fermented beverage of rice, honey, and fruit (hawthorn and/or grape); tartaric acid/tartrate was supported by positive Feigl spot tests for those 13 samples, and δ¹³C values averaged -25.1‰, consistent with a C3 plant such as rice or grape rather than a C4 plant such as millet.
- The Jiahu samples contained an n-alkane series C23–C36, interpreted as deriving from epicuticular wax and/or beeswax, with beeswax serving as a biomarker of honey; rice was strongly suggested by FT-IR and HPLC matches and is the only cereal recovered archaeobotanically at Jiahu.
- Liquids from tightly lidded late Shang/early Western Zhou bronze vessels (ca. 1250–1000 B.C.) from Anyang and the Changzikou Tomb were identified as fermented and filtered rice or millet “wines,” likely jiu or chang; the Changzikou sample gave δ¹³C = -25.3‰ (C3 plant, such as rice), whereas the Anyang liquid gave δ¹³C = -15.9‰, indicating a C4 plant, most likely millet.
- Aromatic compounds in the bronze-vessel liquids included camphor, α-cedrene, benzaldehyde, β-amyrin, and oleanolic acid; beeswax and epicuticular wax compounds were absent, implying no honey or plant additive in those proto-historic beverages.
Methods
- Combined chemical, archaeobotanical, and archaeological approach: 16 pottery sherds from domestic contexts at Jiahu, radiocarbon-dated and dendro-calibrated to subperiods III (ca. 7000–6600 B.C.), II (ca. 6600–6200 B.C.), and I (ca. 6200–5500 B.C.), plus liquid samples from two lidded bronze vessels dated ca. 1250–1000 B.C. (Liu Jiazhuang Tomb at Anyang and Changzikou Tomb in Luyi county).
- Five analytical methods were used: GC-MS, HPLC-MS, FT-IR, stable isotope analysis (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N), and selective Feigl spot tests for tartaric and oxalic acids; extractions used methanol, chloroform, and/or hexane, with blanks and database matches against ancient and modern reference compounds.
- Volatile compounds in liquid samples were detected by purge-and-trap thermal desorption GC-MS; stable isotope measurements were made on filtered solids and chloroform/methanol extracts.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: direct chemical evidence of alcohol is lacking because ethanol is volatile and susceptible to microbial attack, so fermentation at Jiahu is inferred from the presence of honey, sugar-rich fruit, and “wine yeast” sources rather than measured directly.
- Stated in the paper: chemical identification is often impeded by environmental and microbial degradation, modern contamination, ancient human processing, and incomplete regional biomarker surveys; some data were unavailable because of small sample size, cycloartenol was not detected possibly because of degradation, and three Jiahu samples gave less definitive determinations likely because they were extremely small.
- Evident from the text: the conclusions rest on a limited number of samples—16 Jiahu sherds and two bronze-vessel liquids—and some supporting archaeobotanical evidence for hawthorn at Jiahu is cited as unpublished data (Z. Zhao and Z. Kong), while inferences from vessel style and context are described by the authors as lower-probability than the chemical analyses.
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Claims the paper makes
24 Own interpretation · 20 Own result · 12 Sources not found · 8 No basis given · 6 Not checked yet · 3 Own method · 1 No full text of the sources
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Beeswax or a plant epicuticular wax, not represented in our databases but chemically similar to beeswax, was supported by the IR and HPLC matches.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“was being produced as early as the seventh millennium before Christ (B.C.)”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This result is consistent with the 730-720 cm -1 infrared absorption band caused by straight-chain hydrocarbons (25), accentuated in the chloroform extracts.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [25] Merk, S., Blume, A. & Riederer, M. (1998) Planta 204, 44-53.
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In the paper
“Similarly, a tartrate salt, which is more insoluble than the acid and would be expected to precipitate out of solution, is evidenced by a broad carboxylate absorption between 1,610 and 1,560 cm -1 .”
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In the paper
“Low 𝛅 15 Nvalues and a very low proportion of nitrogen rule out an animal source.”
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In the paper
“The Changzikou Tomb vessels, one of which is reported on here, exemplify this phenomenon: of more than 90 bronze vessels in the tomb, 52 lidded examples were still a quarterto half-full of liquid (15).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [15]
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In the paper
“The FT-IR and HPLC results for 13 of the 16 Jiahu extracted pottery sherds, when searched for the closest matches in our databases, showed that they were chemically most similar to one another.”
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In the paper
“Analyses of proto-historic liquid samples from tightly lidded bronze vessels, dated to the late Shang ∕ early Western Zhou Dynasties, showed that they constituted somewhat different beverages than the mixed fermented drink of early Neolithic Jiahu.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“GC-MS analyses of samples in the Jiahu group also showed the uniform presence of an inclusive series of n -alkanes, C23-C36 (Fig. 1 c ).”
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In the paper
“Positive evidence for yeast cells was obtained from an 8.5-kg solid white residue inside a weng jar at Taixi (37), probably the lees of a fermented beverage.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Hebei Provincial Institute of Archaeology (1985) Gaocheng Taixi Shang Dai Yizhi (Wenwu, Beijing).
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To establish beyonddoubtthat rice was the principal grain in the Jiahu beverage, HPLC-MSandGC-MSanalyseswereruninsearch of cycloartenol, the principal alcohol in oryzanol (the phytosterol ferulate ester occurring in rice). The compound was not detected, possibly because of degradation.”
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In the paper
“Stable isotope analysis (Table 1) gave 𝛅 13 C values (average -25.1‰)thatwereconsistent with a C3 plant, such as rice or grape, but not a C4 plant, such as millet or sorghum.”
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In the paper
“The presence of tartaric acid ∕ tartrate was further borne out by positive Feigl spot tests for the 13 samples in the Jiahu group.”
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In the paper
“Direct chemical evidence of alcohol is lacking, because this compound is volatile and susceptible to microbial attack.”
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In the paper
“Besides matching one another, the Jiahu samples yielded good FT-IR and HPLC matches to modern rice and rice wine, resinated and nonresinated grape wine (ancient and modern), modern phytosterol ferulate esters, modern beeswax, modern grape tannins, various tree resins and herbal constituents (ancient and modern), modern diacylglycerols, and modern calcium tartrate.”
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In the paper
“This prehistoric drink paved the way for unique cereal beverages of the proto-historic second millennium B.C., remarkably preserved as liquids inside sealed bronze vessels of the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Fig. 3. Thermal desorption GC-MS analysis of lidded you jar from the Changzikou Tomb in Luyi county, Henan province, dated ca. 1250-1000 B.C. Peaks a, b, and c are caused by benzaldehyde, camphor, and 𝛂 -cedrene. Possible wine-derived propanoic acid derivatives account for the two most intense peaks near 10 min. Other peaks correlate with ubiquitous environmental contaminants, especially phthalate”
hedgedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In 2002, Z. Zhao and his colleague, Zhaocheng Kong, first identified seeds of this fruit from early Neolithic levels at Jiahu, thus strengthening the case for its use in the mixed beverage (Z. Zhao and Z. Kong, unpublished data).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Z. Zhao and Z. Kong, unpublished data
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In the paper
“The sharp, intense peaks at 2,920 and 2,850 cm -1 , as well as the absorption at 730-720 cm -1 , are the result of long straight-chain hydrocarbons (e.g., n -alkanes).”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Although the Changzikou Tomb sample gave a 𝛅 13 Cvalue of -25.3‰ in accord with a C3 plant such as rice (Table 1), the stable isotope determination for the Anyang liquid ( -15.9‰) indicated that a C4 plant was used as a principal ingredient.”
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In the paper
“Beeswax and epicuticular wax compounds were absent, implying the absence of honey or a plant additive.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“FT-IR and HPLC matches of the Changzikou Tomb and Anyang liquids to samples in our databases provided additional indicators of the original natural products. Both samples were chemically most similar to modern and ancient resinated wine samples, as would be expected if they were fermented beverages flavored with plantderived compounds. Modern yeast also provided a good FT-IR match for the Changzik”
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“Thermal desorption GC-MS (Fig. 3) revealed that two aromatic compounds, camphor and 𝛂 -cedrene, were present in the Changzikou Tomb liquid, in addition to benzaldehyde, acetic acid, and short-chain alcohols characteristic of rice and grape wines.”
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In the paper
“Tartaric acid and its salts were present at a very low level only in the Changzikou Tomb, consistent with mold saccharification of rice.”
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“Several jars at this site also contained peach, plum, and Chinese date (jujube) pits, as well as seeds of sweet clover, jasmine, and hemp, suggesting that an herbal fruit drink was prepared.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Several blank extractions were carried out to simulate the entire extraction process and analyzed for contaminants and other artifacts caused by sample handling and preparation.”
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In the paper
“The advantage of using a number of independent chemical techniques, as in this study, is that one's confidence that a particular compound is present increases if the results from each method agree and reinforce one another.”
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In the paper
“The samples were tested together with blanks and solutions of the acids at low concentrations.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [18]
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- Not matched
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In the paper
“They serve as biomarkers of honey, because beeswax is virtually impossible to filter out completely when processing honey, and its compounds can be very well preserved.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Beeswax is virtually impossible to filter out completely when processing honey, so its compounds can serve as biomarkers of honey.
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In the paper
“The three samples that did not match the larger group were extremely small, resulting in less definitive chemical determinations that likely account for their divergency rather than their contents having originally differed.”
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In the paper
“Saccharification of rice, which was the traditional method of Chinese beverage-makers since at least the Han Dynasty [ ca. 202 B.C.anno Domini (A.D.) 220], also produces tartaric acid, depending on the mold used (refs. 5 and 33-35, and see below).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites refs. 5 and 33-35
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In the paper
“Fermentation of the mixed ingredients, however, can be inferred, because the ''wine yeast'' ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) occurs in honey and on the skins of sugar-rich fruits.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) occurs in honey and on the skins of sugar-rich fruits.
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In the paper
“Grape possibly accounts for the tartaric acid ∕ tartrate, because grape seeds of a presumed wild type constitute the primary ancient fruit remains found at Jiahu.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Grape seeds of a presumed wild type constitute the primary ancient fruit remains found at Jiahu.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chinese bronze-making technology assured that the lids were tightly fitted to the mouths of vessels. Then, over time, the lids corroded and cut off further exchange with the outside atmosphere, hermetically sealing off any liquid remaining inside the vessels.”
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In the paper
“Honey is a unique, concentrated source of simple sugars (60-80% by weight) in temperate climates around the world, and humans discovered and exploited it as a sweetener at an early date.”
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“Moreover, the scholarly consensus has been that grape wine was first made from the domesticated Eurasian grape ( Vitis vinifera vinfera ), which was introduced into China from Central Asia during the second century B.C. (5), some six millennia later than the Neolithic period at Jiahu.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [5]
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In the paper
“This phenomenon is especially pronounced for senescent and fossilized leaves (24) and, presumably, also degraded archaeological samples.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [24] Tu, T. N. T., Derenne, S., Largeau, C., Mariotti, A & Bocherens, H. (2001) Org. Geochem. 32, 45-55.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“This fruit contains four times the amount of tartaric acid in grape (28), and the modern distribution of hawthorn encompasses northern China (29).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [28] Gao, G. Y., Feng, Y. X. & Qin, X. Q. (1995) Yaoxue Xuebao 30, 138-143.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked yetcites [29] Chinese Academy of Science, Institute of Plant Research. (1972) Iconographia Cormophytorum Sinicorum ( Zhongguo Gaodeng Zhiwu Tujian ) (Science, Beijing).
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In the paper
“By contrast, the sugars in honey, mainly fructose and glucose, rapidly degrade and are lost.”
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- Rests on an assumption: The sugars in honey, mainly fructose and glucose, rapidly degrade and are lost.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contamination from petroleum contaminants, possibly derived from groundwater percolation of pesticides or herbicides or laboratory-introduced, was ruled out by running blanks and because the boiling ranges of n -alkanes in modern products have different ranges of n -alkanes than those observed for the ancient series.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both jiu and chang were likely made by mold saccharification, a uniquely Chinese contribution to beverage-making (5, 9, 39).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [5]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked yetcites [39] Fang, X. (1989) in Zhongguo Jiu Wenhua ( Chinese Wine Culture and Famous Chinese Wines ), ed. Li, Y. (China Food, Beijing), pp. 3-31.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complex urban life eventually led to more specialized beverages andtheamylolysis fermentation system, which became the standard method for making rice and millet wine.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because cereals lack yeast, the initiation of fermentation would have required a high-sugar fruit and ∕ or honey, as attested by the Jiahu mixed fermented beverage.”
hedgeddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Cereals lack yeast.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The ancient chemical evidence now enables the later beverages to be traced back as far as 7000 B.C. and reveals how Chinese beverage-making developed over the millennia.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Rice is the only cereal recovered by archaeobotanical methods at Jiahu, and it is predominant in the corpus.
“In fact, rice is the only cereal that has been recovered by archaeobotanical methods at Jiahu, and it is predominant in the corpus.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Beeswax is virtually impossible to filter out completely when processing honey, so its compounds can serve as biomarkers of honey.
“They serve as biomarkers of honey, because beeswax is virtually impossible to filter out completely when processing honey, and its compounds can be very well preserved.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The sugars in honey, mainly fructose and glucose, rapidly degrade and are lost.
“By contrast, the sugars in honey, mainly fructose and glucose, rapidly degrade and are lost.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) occurs in honey and on the skins of sugar-rich fruits.
“Fermentation of the mixed ingredients, however, can be inferred, because the ''wine yeast'' ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) occurs in honey and on the skins of sugar-rich fruits.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cereals lack yeast.
“Because cereals lack yeast, the initiation of fermentation would have required a high-sugar fruit and ∕ or honey, as attested by the Jiahu mixed fermented beverage.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The fruits of longyan and Asiatic cornelian cherry probably grew farther north in Neolithic times when temperatures were likely milder than today.
“The fruits of these trees, which are concentrated in southern China today, are moderately sweet and somewhat acidic. They probably grew farther north in Neolithic times when temperatures were likely milder than today.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Grape seeds of a presumed wild type constitute the primary ancient fruit remains found at Jiahu.
“Grape possibly accounts for the tartaric acid ∕ tartrate, because grape seeds of a presumed wild type constitute the primary ancient fruit remains found at Jiahu.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Materials and Methods
“( c ) GC-MS analysis of chloroform extract of a , showing homologous series of n -alkanes. ( d ) HPLC-MS analysis of chloroform extract of c , showing the presence of 𝛃 -amyrin; oleanolic acid was attested at 8.9 min.”
§ Results and Discussion
“According to HPLC-MS(Fig. 1 d ) and standard GC-MS analyses, heavier aromatic compounds were present in the Anyang liquid: the triterpenoid 𝛃 -amyrin and its analogue, oleanolic acid.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Results and Discussion
“Fig. 2. Diffuse-reflectance FT-IR analysis of storage jar (compare Fig. 1 a ) methanol extract from Jiahu (no. T109:8, subperiod III, ca. 6200-5800 B.C.).”
§ Results and Discussion
“subperiod I ( ca. 6200-5800 B.C.): nos. F1 ∕ H28 ∕ 46:16, T11 ∕ H25, T14 ∕ H32, T21 ∕ H19, T105 ∕ H102:2, T109, T109:6 ∕ W1:1, and T109:8.”
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Plaza, M. A., Gschaedler, A., & Kirchmayr, M. R. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-29100-5.00006-0
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Wood, N. (2025) · Annali di Ca’ Foscari Serie orientale · doi:10.30687/annor/2385-3042/2025/01/009
Metadata
- Authors
- McGovern, P. E., Zhang, J., Tang, J., Zhang, Z., Hall, G. R., Moreau, R. A., Nuñez, A., Butrym, E. D., Richards, M. P., Wang, C.-S., Cheng, G., Zhao, Z., & Wang, C.
- Affiliations
- Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CN)
- Museum Applied Science Center for Archaeology (MASCA), University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, PA 19104;Department of Scientific History and Archaeometry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China; Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing 100710, China; Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450000, China;Eastern Regional Research Center, U.S. Department of...
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2004-12-08
- Volume
- 101
- Issue
- 51
- Pages
- 17593-17598
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC539767
- OpenAlex
- W2083669318
- Cited by
- 1,091
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 54 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 85 · 2023: 86 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 110 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 8.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Archaeological and Geological Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient and Medieval Archaeology Studies
- Keywords
- fermented beverages, prehistoric China, Neolithic, rice, honey, fruits, hawthorn, grapes, pottery jar, Shang dynasty, Western Zhou dynasty, bronze vessels, ancient Chinese culture
- MeSH terms
- Archaeology, Beverages, China, Fermentation, Fruit, Honey, Oryza, Wine, Spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared, History, Ancient
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