Cited by 269Education Discipline and InequalityRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchCritical Race Theory in Education

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Racial disparities in school-based disciplinary actions are associated with county-level rates of racial bias

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Riddle, Travis, Sinclair, Stacey·2019·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

DOI 10.1073/pnas.1808307116PMC PMC6486724

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Abstract

There are substantial gaps in educational outcomes between black and white students in the United States. Recently, increased attention has focused on differences in the rates at which black and white students are disciplined, finding that black students are more likely to be seen as problematic and more likely to be punished than white students are for the same offense. Although these disparities suggest that racial biases are a contributor, no previous research has shown associations with psychological measurements of bias and disciplinary outcomes. We show that county-level estimates of racial bias, as measured using data from approximately 1.6 million visitors to the Project Implicit website, are associated with racial disciplinary disparities across approximately 96,000 schools in the United States, covering around 32 million white and black students. These associations do not extend to sexuality biases, showing the specificity of the effect. These findings suggest that acknowledging that racial biases and racial disparities in education go hand-in-hand may be an important step in resolving both of these social ills.

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Authors: Riddle, T., & Sinclair, S.
Affiliations: Princeton University (US)
Corresponding author: Riddle, Travis
ORCID: Riddle, Travis
Sinclair, Stacey
Venue: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Publisher: National Academy of Sciences
Published: 2019-04-02
Volume: 116
Issue: 17
Pages: 8255-8260
ISSN: 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
1091-6490
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1808307116
PMC: PMC6486724
OpenAlex: W2927143278
Cited by: 269
References: 35
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 3
FWCI: 92.98
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/licenses.xhtml (vor, 183 d)
Locations: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Princeton University
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
Keywords: racial bias, implicit bias, Project Implicit, Black students, white students, educational inequality, student discipline
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Black or African American, Child, Educational Status, Humans, Schools, Socioeconomic Factors, Students, United States, Models, Statistical, White People, Racism

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Racial disparities in school-based disciplinary actions are associated with county-level rates of racial bias

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