The effects of locus of control and task difficulty on procrastination.
Abstract
The authors investigated the effects of locus of control expectancies and task difficulty on procrastination. Forty-two college students were administered an academic locus of control scale and a task that was similar to a typical college homework assignment. The students were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 task difficulty levels. Although none of the results involving task difficulty was significant, several results involving locus of control were significant. Specifically, analyses revealed that students with internal locus of control expectancies tended to begin working on the assignment sooner than students with external locus of control expectancies. In addition, students with internal locus of control completed and returned the assignment sooner than students with external locus of control. The results are discussed within the context of J. B. Rotter's (1966, 1975, 1982) social learning theory.
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External control is associated with increased procrastination.
“Indeed, procrastination research demonstrates that external control is associated with increased procrastination (e.g., Janssen and Carton, 1999).”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as Janssen and Carton, 1999
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“Unfortunately, the wise usage of time has continued to elude many people in the general population, leading many to be late or tardy (Harriott and Ferrari 1996 , Janssen and Carton 1999 , deLonzor 2003 ).”
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Curtis, N. A., & Trice, A. D. (2013) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/08.03.pms.116.3.817-829 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Janssen and Carton (1999) found that students with an Internal locus of control began a homework assignment an average of three days earlier than those with an External locus of control, and when time to complete (after 6.1 vs 10.0 days) and to turn in the assignment (7.6 days vs 12.2 days) were…”
InfluentialLocus of control in relation to flow
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“It is also similar to the procedure used by Janssen and Carton (1999). The larger the ratio, the more the individual respondent procrastinated on the task in question.”
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“Internal LOC has also been associated with a deep processing of information [17 18], with a higher retention of information [19 21], with a quicker response to teacher assignments [22] and with a higher level of academic achievement [23–25].”
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“…reasons for procrastination, such as lack of intrinsic motivation and problems in self-regulation (Senecal, Koestner, & Vallerand, 1995), fear of negative evaluation (Saddler & Buley, 1999), locus of control (Janssen & Carton, 1999), and low self-efficacy (Haycock, McCarthy, & Skay, 1998).”
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“Some researchers found no relationship between the two variables (Ferrari, 1992; Baker and Ware, 1992), while others found that internals procrastinate less than externals (Choi, 1998; Janssen and Carton, 1999; Carden et al., 2004).”
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“…I controlled for respondents ’ locus of control (based on the IE4 scale of Kovaleva 2012) because insuf fi cient effort responding is related to personality traits and locus of control also correlates with individuals ’ ability to fi nish tasks (Janssen and Carton 1999; Sari and Fakhruddiana 2019).”
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“Given that locus of control appears to be an individual factor that predicts student perceptions and behaviors in the instructional setting (Janssen & Carton, 1999; Landis et al., 2007; Mooney et al., 1991; Nordstrom & Segrist, 2009; Sidelinger, 2010; Sidelinger & Banfield, 2007; Wheeless et al.,…”
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“For example, a large end-of-course test designed to assess primarily recall may drive students to “cram,” or study intensively in the short period before the test, rather than studying consistently throughout the course (14, 27).”
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Does Locus of Control Task Interest Have an Effect on Procrastination
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Delving into the Relationship between LOC, MI, and Reading Proficiency
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“LOC is a "generalized expectancy reflecting the degree to which individuals perceive consequences as contingent on their own behavior and abilities (internal control) rather than on some external force such as luck, chance, fate, or powerful others (external control)" (Janssen & Carton, 1999. p.1).”
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Factors Affecting Academic Procrastination
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İŞ GÜVENCESİZLİĞİ İLE İŞYERİ PROKRASTİNASYONU (ERTELEME ALIŞKANLIĞI) İLİŞKİSİ
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Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Nomofobi Düzeyleri ile Akademik Erteleme Davranışları Arasındaki İlişki
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“Therefore, success in self-directed and self-regulated learning depends on higher levels of ILOC (Deci et al., 1991; Jansenn & Carton, 1999; Cornoldi et al., 2003; Zhu et al., 2020).”
BackgroundGrounded Task Prioritization with Context-Aware Sequential Ranking
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“Janssen and Carton (1999) showed that internal students in their samples began work on tasksmore promptly than externals, and turned assignments in sooner.”
BackgroundPredictors of student success in distance education courses
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“Typically, problems in time management are related to multiple roles and procrastination (Garland, 1993a, 1993b; Guernsey, 1998; Janssen & Carton, 1999; Jegede et al., 1999; Leasure et al., 2000; Minich, 1996; Morgan & Tam, 1999; Prather & Hand, 1986; Saba, 2000; Taplin & Jegede, 2001; Wang &…”
BackgroundDeterminants of Procrastination in Academic Settings
Filozofski fakultet, R., Živčić–Bećirević, I., Smojver‐Ažić, S., & Dorčić, T. M. (2015) · Drustvena istrazivanja · doi:10.5559/di.24.1.03 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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ERTELEME DAVRANIŞININ ÖNCÜLLERİ OLARAK DIŞ KONTROL ODAKLILIK VE ROL ÇATIŞMASI: AMPİRİK BİR ÇALIŞMA
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Role of Self-Control on Academic Procrastination: A Literature Review
Asani, F. R. (2023) · 12 Waiheru · doi:10.47655/12waiheru.v9i1.108 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“A procrastinated student had a lack of self-control in their behaviour, cognitive, and motivation (Park and Sperling in Wijaya and Tori, 2018). Based on the research result by Solomon and Rothblum (1984), people who have low self-control tend to postpone their tasks.”
Sardoğan, M. E., Kaygusuz, C., & Karahan, T. F. (2006) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · doi:10.17860/efd.21496 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Host communication competence and locus of control of international students in the United States
Sheldon, P. (2010) · Journal of Intercultural Communication · doi:10.36923/jicc.v10i3.513 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Effect of Procrastination and Stress on Low Effort and High Effort Tasks
Musolino, E. (2007) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Ghosh, S., & Vohra, N. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wbf5v · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Perceived Impact of Procrastination on Academic Performance Among Students and the Role of AI Tools
Jebasingh, D. R., Ahmad, N., Shimray, S. R., & Subaveerapandiyan, A. (2025) · Libri · doi:10.1515/libri-2025-0093 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kuo, C.-T., Chang, C., & Yen, W.-H. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35343-8_79 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Academic Procrastination as Predictor of Mathematics Anxiety of Pupils in Enugu State, Nigeria
Adimora, D. E., Akaneme, I. N., & Nwokenna, E. N. (2017) · New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.18844/prosoc.v3i3.1608 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Çınar, M., Doğan, D., & Demir, Ö. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13251-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“In the literature, individuals who establish a more direct relationship between their efforts and consequences were reported to spend less time starting, completing, and returning to academic tasks (Janssen & Carton, 1999).”
PENTINGNYA BIMBINGAN DAN KONSELING UNTUK MENGURANGI PROKRASTINASI AKADEMIK SISWA
Aini, Z., & Heni, R. (2018) · At-Taujih Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam · doi:10.22373/taujih.v1i2.7202 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Pin, W. (2011) · Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cahyono, T. (2020) · Prophetic Professional Empathy and Islamic Counseling Journal · doi:10.24235/prophetic.v3i2.7589 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Carpenter, J. (2011) · KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Pyle, A. S., Fuller, R. P., & Smith, H. (2025) · Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management · doi:10.1111/1468-5973.70036 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Academic Procrastination as Predictor of Mathematics Anxiety of Pupils in Enugu State, Nigeria
Adimora, D. E., Akaneme, I. N., & Nwokenna, E. N. (2017) · New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.18844/gjhss.v3i3.1608 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Karkı, A., & Bayramoğlu, G. (2024) · İktisadi İdari ve Siyasal Araştırmalar Dergisi · doi:10.25204/iktisad.1391441 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Addressing Teachers' Feelings of Lack of Control over Policy Issues
Judson, E. (2013) · Journal of Education and Training Studies · doi:10.11114/jets.v2i1.171 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…when they believe their own behaviors and abilities can significantly influence consequences; similarly, an external locus of control leads people to believe that consequences are determined on external factors such as luck or powerful administrative forces (Janssen & Carton, 1999; Rotter, 1966).”
BackgroundUnderstanding Failure: Social Workers Reflec t on Their Lice nsing Examination Experience
Works, C. A. (2015) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
ESKALASI KOMITMEN INDIVIDU BERDASARKAN LOCUS OF CONTROL DALAM KASUS INVESTASI
Suwarni, E., Subroto, B., & Irianto, G. (2018) · EKUITAS (Jurnal Ekonomi dan Keuangan) · doi:10.24034/j25485024.y2013.v17.i4.113 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lao, H., Lao, K. G., Lao, K. A., Santos, M. D., & Alieto, E. O. (2023) · Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research/Advances in social science, education and humanities research · doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-042-8_18 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Human procrastination: effects of response requirements
Ceballos, C. G. T., Vargas, M. A. P., & dos Santos, C. V. (2023) · Interdisciplinaria Revista de Psicología y Ciencias Afines · doi:10.16888/interd.2023.40.3.19 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ferdus, Z., Kabir, T., & Akter, S. (2016) · Journal of Business and Technology (Dhaka) · doi:10.3329/jbt.v10i2.29466 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…issues impacting on their studies (Day, Mensink & O’Sullivan, 2000) and procrastination commonly affects 46% to 95% of students (Gallagher, Borg, Golin, & Kellehr, 1992; Janssen & Carton, 1999; Kachgal, Hansen, & Nutter, 2001; Paden & Stell, 1997; Özer, Demir, & Ferrari, 2009).”
Analysis of Procrastination and Flow Experiences
Dawson, B. L. (2007) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Miihkinen, A., & Virtanen, T. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2388648 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sidelinger, R. J. (2008) · doi:10.33915/etd.9770 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
PERILAKU PROKASTINASI MAHASISWA DITINJAU DARI LOCUS OF CONTROL
Hartosujono, H. (2017) · JURNAL SPIRITS · doi:10.30738/spirits.v3i1.1123 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Tyara, R., Mulawarman, M., Sunawan, S., & Mulyani, P. K. (2023) · Grief and Trauma · doi:10.59388/gt.v1i2.653 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Then, the research results by Jansen & Carton (1999) revealed that students with an internal locus of control did not often procrastinate and completed assignments earlier than those with an external locus of control.”
Psychometric Properties of the Academic Locus of Control Scale- Adolescent Form
Sarıçam, H. (2014) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Octafiani, I. A., Aspin, A., & Kaimuddin, S. M. (2020) · Jurnal Sublimapsi · doi:10.36709/sublimapsi.v1i1.10536 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Di Nocera, F., De Piano, R., Rullo, M., & Tempestini, G. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13040333 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Although the literature has placed the focus primarily on these traits, procrastination seems to be a (presumably learned) behavioral strategy that is used to avoid the unpleasant feelings associated with the completion of aversive tasks, such as difficult or boring tasks [26,34,35], which are often thought of as not…”
BackgroundTHE EFFECT OF LOCUS OF CONTROL (LOC) ON IMPROVING STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES
Ahmad, I. I., Hanifah, N., & Nugraha, D. (2023) · JMIE (Journal of Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Education) · doi:10.32934/jmie.v7i2.554 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Janssen, T., & Carton, J. S.
- Affiliations
- Beloit College (US)
- Oglethorpe University (US)
- Venue
- The Journal of Genetic Psychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1999-12
- Volume
- 160
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 436-442
- ISSN
- 0022-1325 (ISSN-L)
- 1940-0896
- OpenAlex
- W2076980316
- Cited by
- 133
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 1.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Journal of Genetic Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
- Keywords
- procrastination, locus of control, task difficulty, internal locus of control, external locus of control, academic performance, homework completion, social learning theory, university students
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Students, Task Performance and Analysis, Time Factors, Young Adult
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