The Cash Opportunity Costs of Childbearing: An Approach To Estimation Using British Data
Abstract
The opportunity costs of rearing British children in terms of cash earnings foregone by their mother are estimated for a typical family. Data from the Women and Employment Survey (1980) provide estimates for hourly pay as a function of work experience and current hours of work. They also make possible the generation of participation and hours profiles for representative women with different numbers of children, which, together with the earnings function are used to simulate lifetime income. Earnings foregone as a result of bearing and rearing two children are roughly equally composed of three effects, on participation, hours and pay. They exceed direct costs, and do not rise proportionally with family size. They are sensitive to the spacing of births but not, undiscounted, to the timing of the first one. The method and results contrast markedly with those of a similarly motivated study of US women, by Calhoun and Espenshade. It is argued that the non-linearity of the earnings function and state dependence in British labour force transitions would violate the assumptions which permitted the US exercise to be based on a multi-state labour force life-table.
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Motherhood obligations lead to limitations in career opportunities and losses in work earnings, referred to as the opportunity costs of motherhood.
“However, an opposing force ostensibly influences women: motherhood obligations lead to limitations in career opportunities and losses in work earnings, referred to as the opportunity costs of motherhood (Joshi 1990).”
From Education, Gender, and Cohort Fertility in the Nordic Countries (2019) · cites this paper as Joshi 1990
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“567 1 3 Education, Gender, and Cohort Fertility in the Nordic Countries influences women: motherhood obligations lead to limitations in career opportunities and losses in work earnings, referred to as the opportunity costs of motherhood (Joshi 1990).”
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“…a series of direct and indirect costs associated with childbearing and childrearing (i.e. monetary investment of production and rearing, time investment for house and care work) that reduce the career opportunities and earning capacities for women (Balbo et al., 2013; Kravdal, 1992; Joshi, 1990).”
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- Authors
- Joshi, H.
- Affiliations
- Birkbeck, University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Joshi, Heather
- ORCID
- Joshi, Heather
- Venue
- Population Studies
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1990-03
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 41-60
- ISSN
- 0032-4728 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-4747
- OpenAlex
- W2030205967
- Cited by
- 128
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 3 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 11.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Population Studies (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Labor market dynamics and wage inequality
- Keywords
- parenting, women's labour force participation, birth spacing, family size, lifetime income, earnings functions, state dependence, labor force transitions, British women
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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