The DOI matches its Crossref record.
A survey of image classification methods and techniques for improving classification performance
Abstract
Image classification is a complex process that may be affected by many factors. This paper examines current practices, problems, and prospects of image classification. The emphasis is placed on the summarization of major advanced classification approaches and the techniques used for improving classification accuracy. In addition, some important issues affecting classification performance are discussed. This literature review suggests that designing a suitable image‐processing procedure is a prerequisite for a successful classification of remotely sensed data into a thematic map. Effective use of multiple features of remotely sensed data and the selection of a suitable classification method are especially significant for improving classification accuracy. Non‐parametric classifiers such as neural network, decision tree classifier, and knowledge‐based classification have increasingly become important approaches for multisource data classification. Integration of remote sensing, geographical information systems (GIS), and expert system emerges as a new research frontier. More research, however, is needed to identify and reduce uncertainties in the image‐processing chain to improve classification accuracy.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
No references could be resolved yet.
Research works printed but not linked: 376
- Adams , J. B. , Smith , M. O. and Gillespie , A. R. 1993 . “ Imaging spectroscopy: interpretation based on spectral mixture analysis. ” . In Remote Geochemical Analysis: Elemental and mineralogical composition , Edited by: Pieters , C. M and Englert , P.. A. J . 145 – 166 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
- 10.1016/0034-4257(94)00098-8 · DOI · Paper page
- Althausen , J. D. 2002 . “ What remote sensing system should be used to collect the data? ” . In Manual of Geospatial Science and Technology , Edited by: Bossler , J. D , Jensen , J. R , McMaster , R. B and Rizos , C . 276 – 297 . New York : Taylor and Francis .
- 10.1080/0143116031000115111 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160210163146 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160310001618031 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160110053176 · DOI
- Aplin , P. , Atkinson , P. M. and Curran , P. J. 1999a . “ Per‐field classification of land use using the forthcoming very fine spatial resolution satellite sensors: problems and potential solutions. ” . In Advances in Remote Sensing and GIS Analysis , Edited by: Atkinson , P. M and Tate , N. J . 219 – 239 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(98)00112-6 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160110115960 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1080/01431160310001654383 · DOI
- Atkinson , P. M. and Curran , P. J. 1997 . Choosing an appropriate spatial resolution for remote sensing investigations. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 63 : 1345 – 1351 .
- 10.1080/014311697218700 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1080/014311697218836 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1109/36.387577 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160119220 · DOI
- 10.5589/m03-014 · DOI
- 10.1109/36.377929 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1080/01431160110087944 · DOI
- Barnsley , M. J. 1999 . “ Digital remote sensing data and their characteristics. ” . In Geographical Information Systems: Principles, techniques, applications, and management, 2nd edn , Edited by: Longley , P , Goodchild , M , Maguire , D. J and Rhind , D. W . 451 – 466 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
- Barnsley , M. J. and Barr , S. L. 1996 . Inferring urban land use from satellite sensor images using kernel‐based spatial reclassification. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 62 : 949 – 958 .
- 10.1016/S0198-9715(97)10001-1 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0098-3004(01)00051-6 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(95)00177-8 · DOI
- 10.1029/1999JD900243 · DOI
- 10.1109/36.763301 · DOI
- 10.1109/36.469483 · DOI
- 10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2003.10.002 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0098-3004(99)00119-3 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0098-3004(02)00033-X · DOI
- 10.1109/36.563272 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0167-8655(99)00061-6 · DOI
- 10.1109/3468.477860 · DOI · Paper page
- Bolstad , P. V. and Lillesand , T. M. 1992 . Rule‐based classification models: flexible integration of satellite imagery and thematic spatial data. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 58 : 965 – 971 .
- Brisco , B. and Brown , R. J. 1995 . Multidate SAR/TM synergism for crop classification in western Canada. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 61 : 1009 – 1014 .
- 10.1080/07038992.1999.10874745 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0304-3800(99)00100-3 · DOI
- Bruzzone , L. , Conese , C. , Maselli , F. and Roli , F. 1997 . Multisource classification of complex rural areas by statistical and neural‐network approaches. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 63 : 523 – 533 .
- 10.1109/36.763299 · DOI
- 10.2747/0749-3878.40.2.91 · DOI
- Canters , F. 1997 . Evaluating the uncertainty of area estimates derived from fuzzy land‐cover classification. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 63 : 403 – 414 .
- 10.1016/j.rse.2003.10.024 · DOI
- Carlotto , M. J. 1998 . Spectral shape classification of Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 64 : 905 – 913 .
- Carr , J. R. 1999 . “ Classification of digital image texture using variograms. ” . In Advances in Remote Sensing and GIS Analysis , Edited by: Atkinson , P. M and Tate , N. J . 135 – 146 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
- 10.1109/36.729366 · DOI
- Chalifoux , S. , Cavayas , F. and Gray , J. T. 1998 . Mapping‐guided approach for the automatic detection on Landsat TM images of forest stands damaged by the spruce budworm. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 64 : 629 – 635 .
- Chavez , P. S. Jr. 1996 . Image‐based atmospheric corrections—revisited and improved. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 62 : 1025 – 1036 .
- 10.1016/S0924-2716(03)00014-5 · DOI
- Chen , D. and Stow , D. A. 2002 . The effect of training strategies on supervised classification at different spatial resolution. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 68 : 1155 – 1162 .
- 10.14358/PERS.69.11.1279 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160310001618464 · DOI
- Chen , K. S. , Tzeng , Y. C. , Chen , C. F. and Kao , W. L. 1995 . Land‐cover classification of multispectral imagery using a dynamic learning neural network. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 61 : 403 – 408 .
- 10.1080/014311697218746 · DOI
- 10.1080/0143116032000160480 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311600210092 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311698214451 · DOI
- 10.1016/j.rse.2004.05.008 · DOI
- Civco , D. L. 1989 . Topographic normalization of Landsat Thematic Mapper digital imagery. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 55 : 1303 – 1309 .
- Colby , J. D. 1991 . Topographic normalization in rugged terrain. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 57 : 531 – 537 .
- 10.1080/0143116031000150095 · DOI
- 10.1080/02757259409532223 · DOI
- 10.1016/0034-4257(91)90048-B · DOI
- Congalton , R. G. and Green , K. 1993 . A practical look at the sources of confusion in error matrix generation. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 59 : 641 – 644 .
- Congalton , R. G. and Green , K. 1999 . Assessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data: Principles and practices , Boca Raton, London, New York : Lewis Publishers .
- Congalton , R. G. and Mead , R. A. 1983 . A quantitative method to test for consistency and correctness in photo interpretation. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 49 : 69 – 74 .
- Congalton , R. G. and Plourde , L. 2002 . “ Quality assurance and accuracy assessment of information derived from remotely sensed data. ” . In Manual of Geospatial Science and Technology , Edited by: Bossler , J . 349 – 361 . London : Taylor & Francis .
- 10.1080/014311697218403 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311698215379 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311698214848 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1109/36.763293 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(01)00184-5 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431168708948612 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311698213911 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160210155910 · DOI
- Debeir , O. , van den Steen , I. , Latinne , P. , van Ham , P. and Wolff , E. 2002 . Textural and contextual land‐cover classification using single and multiple classifier systems. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 68 : 597 – 605 .
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(00)00142-5 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1080/014311698214235 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00135-4 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1016/S0031-3203(99)00215-0 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0031-3203(02)00065-1 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00029-9 · DOI
- Dungan , J. L. 2002 . “ Toward a comprehensive view of uncertainty in remote sensing analysis. ” . In Uncertainty in Remote Sensing and GIS , Edited by: Foody , G. M and Atkinson , P. M . 25 – 35 . Chichester : John Wiley & Sons . · DOI
- 10.1109/36.789656 · DOI
- 10.1109/TGRS.1990.573019 · DOI
- Ehlers , M. , Edwards , G. and Bedard , Y. 1989 . Integration of remote sensing with geographic information systems: a necessary evolution. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 55 : 1619 – 1627 .
- Ekstrand , S. 1996 . Landsat TM‐based forest damage assessment: correction for topographic effects. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 62 : 151 – 161 .
- Emerson , C. W. , Lam , N. S. and Quattrochi , D. A. 1999 . Multi‐scale fractal analysis of image texture and pattern. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 65 : 51 – 61 .
- 10.1080/01431160210145597 · DOI
- Epstein , J. , Payne , K. and Kramer , E. 2002 . Techniques for mapping suburban sprawl. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 68 : 913 – 918 .
- 10.1080/0143116031000150077 · DOI
- 10.1016/j.rse.2004.04.006 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431169608949156 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311698216008 · DOI
- Estes , J. E. and Loveland , T. R. 1999 . “ Characteristics, sources, and management of remotely‐sensed data. ” . In Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Applications, and Management, 2nd edn , Edited by: Longley , P , Goodchild , M , Maguire , D. J and Rhind , D. W . 667 – 675 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
- 10.1016/j.rse.2002.06.006 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160210133563 · DOI
- 10.1080/02693799308901966 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311697219015 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311697216649 · DOI
- Foody , G. M. 1992 . On the compensation for chance agreement in image classification accuracy assessment. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 58 : 1459 – 1460 .
- 10.1080/01431169608948706 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311698214659 · DOI
- Foody , G. M. 1999 . “ Image classification with a neural network: from completely‐crisp to fully‐fuzzy situation. ” . In Advances in Remote Sensing and GIS Analysis , Edited by: Atkinson , P. M and Tate , N. J . 17 – 37 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
- 10.1080/01431160110109570 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(01)00295-4 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.14358/PERS.70.5.627 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1080/01431160310001648019 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311697218764 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1002/0470035269 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431169408954100 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1109/TGRS.2004.827257 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1016/j.rse.2004.06.017 · DOI · Paper page
- Foody , G. M. , McCulloch , M. B. and Yates , W. B. 1995 . Classification of remotely sensed data by an artificial neural network: issues related to training data characteristics. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 61 : 391 – 401 .
- Foschi , P. G. and Smith , D. K. 1997 . Detecting subpixel woody vegetation in digital imagery using two artificial intelligence approaches. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 63 : 493 – 500 .
- Franklin , J. , Phinn , S. R. , Woodcock , C. E. and Rogan , J. 2003 . “ Rationale and conceptual framework for classification approaches to assess forest resources and properties. ” . In Remote Sensing of Forest Environments: Concepts and case studies , Edited by: Wulder , M. A and Franklin , S. E . 279 – 300 . Boston : Kluwer Academic Publishers . · DOI
- 10.1201/9781420032857 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1080/01431168908903979 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431169008955039 · DOI
- 10.1191/0309133302pp332ra · DOI
- Franklin , S. E. , Connery , D. R. and Williams , J. A. 1994 . Classification of alpine vegetation using Landsat Thematic Mapper, SPOT HRV and DEM data. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 20 : 49 – 56 .
- 10.1016/0098-3004(96)00009-X · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160110113971 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(97)00049-7 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1109/36.752215 · DOI
- Friedl , M. A. , McGwire , K. C. and McIver , D. K. 2001 . “ An overview of uncertainty in optical remotely sensed data for ecological applications. ” . In Spatial Uncertainty in Ecology: Implications for remote sensing and GIS applications , Edited by: Hunsaker , C. T , Goodchild , M. F , Friedl , M. A and Case , T. J . 258 – 283 . New York : Springer‐Verlag . · DOI
- 10.1016/S0924-2716(00)00018-6 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160310001619607 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(98)00115-1 · DOI
- Garguet‐Duport , B. , Girel , J. , Chassery , J. and Pautou , G. 1996 . The use of multiresolution analysis and wavelet transform for merging SPOT panchromatic and multispectral image data. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 62 : 1057 – 1066 .
- 10.1080/01431160210144499 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431169408954228 · DOI
- 10.1016/j.rse.2004.06.006 · DOI
- 10.1016/j.rse.2003.07.010 · DOI
- 10.1080/07038992.1994.10874578 · DOI
- Gong , P. 1996 . Integrated analysis of spatial data from multiple sources: using evidential reasoning and artificial neural network techniques for geological mapping. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 62 : 513 – 523 .
- Gong , P. and Howarth , P. J. 1992 . Frequency‐based contextual classification and gray‐level vector reduction for land‐use identification. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 58 : 423 – 437 .
- 10.1016/0034-4257(92)90011-8 · DOI
- Gopal , S. and Woodcock , C. 1994 . Theory and methods for accuracy assessment of thematic maps using fuzzy sets. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 60 : 181 – 188 .
- 10.1080/01431168608954686 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431169608948987 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(97)00177-6 · DOI
- 10.1080/0143116021000021288 · DOI
- Haack , B. N. , Solomon , E. K. , Bechdol , M. A. and Herold , N. D. 2002 . Radar and optical data comparison/integration for urban delineation: a case study. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 68 : 1289 – 1296 .
- 10.1016/j.rse.2003.10.002 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160310001647993 · DOI
- 10.14358/PERS.69.7.785 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431169608949069 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1109/TSMC.1973.4309314 · DOI · Paper page
- Hardin , P. J. 1994 . Parametric and nearest‐neighbor methods for hybrid classification: a comparison of pixel assignment accuracy. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 60 : 1439 – 1448 .
- Hardin , P. J. and Shumway , J. M. 1997 . Statistical significance and normalized confusion matrices. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 63 : 735 – 740 .
- Harris , P. M. and Ventura , S. J. 1995 . The integration of geographic data with remotely sensed imagery to improve classification in an urban area. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 61 : 993 – 998 .
- 10.1016/0034-4257(95)00189-1 · DOI
- 10.1109/TGRS.1990.572934 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160050029495 · DOI
- Heo , J. and FitzHugh , T. W. 2000 . A standardized radiometric normalization method for change detection using remotely sensed imagery. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 66 : 173 – 182 .
- 10.14358/PERS.69.9.991 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1080/02693799608902114 · DOI
- Hinton , J. C. 1999 . “ Image classification and analysis using integrated GIS. ” . In Advances in Remote Sensing and GIS Analysis , Edited by: Atkinson , P. M and Tate , N. J . 207 – 218 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
- 10.14358/PERS.69.9.973 · DOI
- 10.1016/0034-4257(95)00138-7 · DOI
- 10.1109/72.991427 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160110040323 · DOI
- 10.14358/PERS.70.4.415 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(00)00165-6 · DOI
- Hudson , W. D. and Ramm , C. W. 1987 . Correct formulation of the Kappa coefficient of agreement. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 53 : 421 – 422 .
- 10.1109/TIT.1968.1054102 · DOI
- Huguenin , R. L. , Karaska , M. A. , Blaricom , D. V. and Jensen , J. R. 1997 . Subpixel classification of Bald Cypress and Tupelo Gum trees in Thematic Mapper imagery. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 63 : 717 – 725 .
- Hung , M. and Ridd , M. K. 2002 . A subpixel classifier for urban land‐cover mapping based on a maximum‐likelihood approach and expert system rules. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 68 : 1173 – 1180 .
- 10.1007/978-1-4613-0209-4 · DOI
- 10.1016/j.rse.2003.04.004 · DOI
- Hutchinson , C. F. 1982 . Techniques for combining Landsat and ancillary data for digital classification improvement. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 48 : 123 – 130 .
- 10.1080/01431168508948285 · DOI
- 10.1080/07038992.1997.10855208 · DOI
- 10.1109/36.387590 · DOI
- Janssen , L. F. J. and van der Wel , F. J. M. 1994 . Accuracy assessment of satellite derived land‐cover data: a review. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 60 : 419 – 426 .
- Janssen , L. F. , Jaarsma , M. N. and van der Linden , E. T. M. 1990 . Integrating topographic data with remote sensing for land‐cover classification. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 56 : 1503 – 1506 .
- Jensen , J. R. 1996 . Introduction to Digital Image Processing: A remote sensing perspective, 2nd edn , Piscataway, NJ : Prentice Hall .
- Jensen , J. R. and Cowen , D. C. 1999 . Remote sensing of urban/suburban infrastructure and socioeconomic attributes. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 65 : 611 – 622 .
- 10.1109/36.763278 · DOI
- 10.1016/j.rse.2004.03.016 · DOI
- 10.1109/36.763300 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00172-4 · DOI
- 10.1080/07038992.1997.10855203 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431169408954132 · DOI
- 10.1080/014311698215199 · DOI
- 10.1016/0167-8655(82)90050-2 · DOI
- 10.1080/0143116031000114851 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00130-5 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0031-3203(03)00175-4 · DOI
- 10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00133-5 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1080/02757250109532431 · DOI
- 10.1080/0143116031000107868 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431169608949132 · DOI
- 10.1080/02693799308901955 · DOI
- 10.1080/10106049908542127 · DOI
- 10.1080/01431160050505874 · DOI
- 10.1002/0471723800 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1016/j.rse.2004.01.007 · DOI · Paper page
- Leckie , D. G. 1998 . “ Forestry applications using imaging radar. ” . In Principles and Applications of Imaging Radar, Manual of Remote Sensing, 3rd edn , Edited by: Henderson , F. M and Lewis , A. J . Vol. 2 , 437 – 509 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
- 10.1109/34.879789 · DOI
200 of 376 shown
Cited by
High-resolution mapping of global surface water and its long-term changes
Pekel, J.-F., Cottam, A., Gorelick, N., & Belward, A. S. (2016) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature20584 · Cited by 5,513
Convolutional neural networks for large-scale remote-sensing image classification
Maggiori, E., Tarabalka, Y., Charpiat, G., & Alliez, P. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing · doi:10.1109/tgrs.2016.2612821 · Cited by 1,114
Wen, J., Thibeau-Sutre, E., Diaz-Melo, M., Samper-González, J., Routier, A., Bottani, S., Dormont, D., Durrleman, S., Burgos, N., & Colliot, O. (2020) · Medical Image Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.media.2020.101694 · Cited by 809
Jo, T., Nho, K., & Saykin, A. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00220 · Cited by 724
Ball, J. E., Anderson, D. T., & Chan, C. S. (2017) · Journal of Applied Remote Sensing · doi:10.1117/1.jrs.11.042609 · Cited by 746
Metadata
- Authors
- Lu, D., & Weng, Q.
- Venue
- International Journal of Remote Sensing
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2007-03
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 823-870
- ISSN
- 0143-1161 (ISSN-L)
- 1366-5901
- OpenAlex
- W2168809519
- Cited by
- 3,402
- References
- 0
- FWCI
- 153.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: A survey of image classification methods and techniques for improving classification performance. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1080/01431160600746456
- The paper
- Lu, D., & Weng, Q. (2007). A survey of image classification methods and techniques for improving classification performance. International Journal of Remote Sensing. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160600746456
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.