Predictors of course outcomes: early indicators of delay in online classrooms
Abstract
Studies have long shown that students who begin or submit their work later tend to have negative academic outcomes. The measures of procrastination used in those studies may not have provided information timely enough for instructor intervention. This article focuses on delay in the online environment among graduate students. We propose two new measures of delay that can be disclosed in a timely manner, enabling instructors to help students who are prone to late submissions to succeed. Date of class registration and date of initial class posting are negatively associated with final letter grades. Date of first class posting can serve to alert instructors to those with potential delay problems. The results for date of class registration are less clear.
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Using notification-based stimuli to reduce academic procrastination in online learning processes can contribute to improving students' self-regulation skills.
“As a result, using notification-based stimuli to reduce academic procrastination in online learning processes can contribute to both improving students' self-regulation skills and increasing their participation in learning processes (McElroy & Lubich, 2013;van Eerde & Klingsieck, 2018).”
From You have a notification: the role of push notifications in shaping students’ engagement, self-regulation and academic procrastination (2025) · cites this paper as McElroy & Lubich, 2013
Using notification-based stimuli to reduce academic procrastination in online learning processes can contribute to increasing students' participation in learning processes.
“As a result, using notification-based stimuli to reduce academic procrastination in online learning processes can contribute to both improving students' self-regulation skills and increasing their participation in learning processes (McElroy & Lubich, 2013;van Eerde & Klingsieck, 2018).”
From You have a notification: the role of push notifications in shaping students’ engagement, self-regulation and academic procrastination (2025) · cites this paper as McElroy & Lubich, 2013
Cites
Steel, P. (2007) · Psychological bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 · Cited by 3,417 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Finally, GPA was included to control for students’ academic abilities and performance (Doran et al., 1991; Lynn & RobinsonBackmon, 2006; Steel, 2007; Van Scyoc & Gleason, 1993; Wooten, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodTice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1997) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00460.x · Cited by 888 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Many studies, most often set in traditional classrooms, have shown a negative association between delays in doing coursework and the grades earned (e.g., Fritzsche, Young, & Hickson, 2003; Tice & Baumeister, 1997; Wesley, 1994).”
BackgroundComparing active delay and procrastination from a self-regulated learning perspective
Corkin, D. M., Yu, S. L., & Lindt, S. F. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.07.005 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Tuckman, B. W. (2005) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.96.3c.1015-1021 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
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Why college students procrastinate in online courses: A self-regulated learning perspective
Cheng, S.-L., & Xie, K. (2021) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2021.100807 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Temporal discounting predicts procrastination in the real world
Zhang, P. Y., & Ma, W. J. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-65110-4 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Furthermore, one could use task starting day 25,27,43,44 .”
MethodMumcu, B. B., & Çebi, A. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-025-00537-x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“As a result, using notification-based stimuli to reduce academic procrastination in online learning processes can contribute to both improving students’ self-regulation skills and increasing their participation in learning processes (McElroy & Lubich, 2013; van Eerde & Klingsieck, 2018).”
Adicción a redes sociales y procrastinación académica en estudiantes universitarios de Lima
Lunahuana Rosales, M. A. (2025) · Universidad Científica del Sur · doi:10.21142/tm.2023.3494
“Los estudios realizados en entornos de aprendizaje en remoto se han centrado principalmente en examinar las relaciones entre la procrastinación y el rendimiento académico (Levy & Ramim, 2012; McElroy & Lubich, 2013).”
- Authors
- McElroy, B. W., & Lubich, B. H.
- Affiliations
- Susquehanna University (US)
- University System of Maryland (US)
- Corresponding author
- McElroy, Barbara Woods
- Venue
- Distance Education
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2013-05
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 84-96
- ISSN
- 0158-7919 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-0198
- OpenAlex
- W2022857550
- Cited by
- 21
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 3 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 1.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Distance Education (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Online Learning and Analytics
- Keywords
- procrastination, late submission, online learning, graduate students, course outcomes, academic performance, instructor intervention, early indicators, letter grades
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