Cited by 366Child Abuse and TraumaAttachment and Relationship DynamicsChild Welfare and Adoption

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Child maltreatment and insecure attachment: a meta‐analysis

Baer, Judith C., Martinez, Colleen Daly·2006·Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology

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Abstract

The validity of the insecure/disorganized attachment pattern has been clearly established in over 80 studies with more than 100 samples. However, given that child maltreatment is considered one of the most important causes of insecure/disorganized attachment, it is notable that few studies have been published specifically examining the maltreatment/insecure attachment hypothesis. The purpose of this paper was to review the research findings and conduct a meta‐analysis to examine the effect size of maltreatment and insecure attachment across studies. A second goal was to conduct a subpopulation analysis to investigate effect size by type of maltreatment. Following a literature search which yielded 25 articles, we identified eight studies (n = 791) that: (a) consisted of children who experienced different types of maltreatment including cases of malnutrition and failure‐to‐thrive, (b) consisted of children under 48 months of age, (c) used the Strange Situation or a modification of it to measure attachment, (d) had comparison groups, and (e) contained sufficient detail to conduct a meta‐analysis. Results showed that the maltreated infants were significantly more likely to have an insecure attachment than the controls. A subpopulation analysis by type of abuse was conducted. Overall the findings support the maltreatment/insecure attachment hypothesis. The subpopulation analysis, although extremely small, indicates that different types of maltreatment affect the magnitude of the e…

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Background
Childhood emotional abuse, self/other attachment, and hopelessness in African-American women
Gaskin, A. L., Calamaras, M. R., LoParo, D., Goodnight, B. L., Remmert, B. C., Salami, T. K., Mack, S. A., & Kaslow, N. J. (2016) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2016.1249895 · Cited by 9
“A meta-analysis of low income, ethnically diverse samples found that childhood abuse and neglect broadly were related to insecure and/or disorganized attachment (Baer & Martinez, 2006).”
BackgroundResult
Efecto del Maltrato Físico en la Calidad de las Representaciones de Apego Infantil en Chile: Resultados Preliminares
Fresno, A., & Spencer, R. (2011) · Terapia psicológica · doi:10.4067/s0718-48082011000200006 · Cited by 8
Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR) Narrative Therapy: Making meaning while learning skills
Ortigo, K. M., Bauer, A., & Cloître, M. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816022-0.00018-1 · Cited by 10
Les représentations d’attachement, les relations d’objet et le jeu des enfants victimes de mauvais traitements
Paquette, M., Terradas, M. M., Chazan, S. E., Lepage-Voyer, C., & Guillemette, R. (2019) · Bulletin de psychologie · doi:10.3917/bupsy.561.0163 · Cited by 8
Childhood maltreatment is associated with lower exploration and disrupted prefrontal activity and connectivity during reward learning in volatile environments
Armbruster‐Genc, D., Neil, L., Valton, V., Phillips, H., Rankin, G., Sharp, M. L., Rapley, J. M., Viding, E. M., Roiser, J. P., & McCrory, E. J. P. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14095 · Cited by 8
Predictors of attachment in early- and late-placed adoptees
Hillman, S., Lajmi, N., Hodges, J., Kaniuk, J., & Steele, M. (2024) · Adoption & Fostering · doi:10.1177/03085759241297696 · Cited by 6
“This does not fall in line with previous findings (Baer and Martinez, 2006; Limke et al., 2010), where exposure to more maltreatment subtypes (e.g., neglect, emotional abuse) was associated with worse outcomes.”
Attachment representations of maltreated and non-maltreated pre-schoolers in Korea and its association with abuse type, chronicity, and severity: a comparative study
Han, J. (2019) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2019.1678607 · Cited by 22
“This finding is in line with the results of previous studies showing that child abuse is associated with insecure attachment (Baer & Martinez, 2006; Cicchetti et al., 2006; Cicchetti & Barnett, 1991).”
Result
Culturally sensitive child placement: key findings from a survey of looked after children in foster and residential care in Ibadan, Nigeria
Ushie, B., Osamor, P. E., Obieje, A. C., & Udoh, E. (2016) · Adoption & Fostering · doi:10.1177/0308575916667672 · Cited by 6
Epistemic mistrust mediates the association between childhood maltreatment and impairments in mentalizing in a sample of university students
Schwarzer, N.-H., Behringer, N., Dees, P., Gingelmaier, S., Henter, M., Kirsch, H., Kreuzer, T. F., Langnickel, R., Link, P.-C., Müller, S., et al. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107436 · Cited by 5
“The links between a history of childhood maltreatment and attachment insecurity (e.g., Baer & Martinez, 2006; Lo et al., 2019), as well as between attachment insecurity and mentalizing deficits (e.g., Fonagy et al., 1991; Slade et al., 2005), are well documented.”
Understanding and Promoting Child Wellbeing After Child Welfare System Involvement: Progress Made and Challenges Ahead
Font, S. A., & Fluke, J. (2023) · International Journal on Child Maltreatment Research Policy and Practice · doi:10.1007/s42448-023-00166-9 · Cited by 4
“…and a healthy cultural identity, available evidence suggests that we should not assume those elements present merely because a child avoided or exited from OHC (Biehal, 2007; Font et al., 2021), especially in the context of child abuse and neglect (Baer & Martinez, 2006; Joseph et al., 2014).”
Why Is Maternal Control Harmful? The Relation between Maternal Control, Insecure Attachment and Antisocial Personality Disorder Features in Chinese College Students: A Sequential Mediation Model
Ling, H., Meng, F., Yan, Y., Feng, H., Zhang, J.-R., Zhang, L.-R., & Yuan, S.-Y. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191710900 · Cited by 5
“Childhood abuse experience is considered as one of the most prominent causes of insecure adult attachment [51].”
BackgroundResult
Latent classes in preschoolers’ internal working models of attachment and emotional security: Roles of family risk
Speidel, R., Behrens, B., Lawson, M., Cummings, E. M., & Valentino, K. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422000293 · Cited by 22
“For example, maltreatment has been associated with insecure disorganized attachment (Baer & Martinez, 2006), IPV has been linked with insecure anxious attachment (Velotti et al., 2020), and elevated maternal depressive symptoms have been associated with insecure avoidant and disorganized attachment…”
Background
Haben radikalisierte Personen Zugang zu psychotherapeutischer Unterstützung?
Rau, T., Heimgartner, A., Fegert, J., & Allroggen, M. (2020) · Psychotherapeut (Berlin) · doi:10.1007/s00278-020-00428-8 · Cited by 5
The link between family violence in childhood and internalizing and externalizing problems in later life among college students in China: attachment as a mediator
Xiang, X., & Han, M. (2020) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15332985.2019.1676365 · Cited by 5
“…given the negative impacts of IPV on mental and behavioral health, scholars have examined the mechanisms of this impact and have documented attachment style as an important aspect of these mechanisms (Baer & Martinez, 2006; Cyr et al., 2010; Koehn & Kerns, 2018; Sachs-Ericsson et al., 2016).”
Background
Examination of Child Placement, Emotional, Behavioral and Attachment Problems Among Children with Caregiver-Perpetrated Trauma Histories
Beyerlein, B. A., Briggs, E., Vivrette, R., Theodore, P., & Lee, R. C. (2018) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-018-0206-z · Cited by 5
“, motor, language, social, or cognitive), dissociation, school difficulties, impaired soothing and emotional self-regulation skills, aggressive and externalizing behaviors, and difficulty maintaining healthy relationships (Baer and Martinez 2006; Cook et al. 2005; Putnam 2006).”
Background
La sécurité affective chez l’enfant en milieu résidentiel : des soins du corps au bien-être émotionnel
Aprile, P., Englebert, J., & Gauthier, J. (2015) · L Évolution Psychiatrique · doi:10.1016/j.evopsy.2014.08.008 · Cited by 5
Maltrato infantil y representaciones de apego: defensas, memoria y estrategias, una revisión
Rodríguez, A. F., Spencer, R., & Castro, T. R. (2012) · Universitas Psychologica · doi:10.11144/javeriana.upsy11-3.mira · Cited by 4
“…2005; Macfie, Cicchetti & Toth, 2001 Moreno Manso, 2005; Pollak, Cicchetti, Hornung & Reed, 2000), y la calidad del apego infantil no es la excepción (Aspelmeier, Elliot & Smith, 2007; Baer & Martinez, 2006; Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980; Glaser, 2000; Hodges & Steele, 2000; Morton & Browne, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluential
Associations between Parenting and Mental Health
Schofield, T. J., Holst, M. R., & Murphy, S. K. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-397045-9.00071-9
The role of the mother-child relationship in child sexual abuse
Martinez, C. D. (2009) · Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) · doi:10.7282/t3ww7hwn · Cited by 3
Self-citation
The U-shaped effect of coach-athlete attachment on athlete engagement: the mediating role of thriving and the moderating role of mental toughness
Dai, Z., Zheng, T., & Li, R. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1544860 · Cited by 5
Adverse childhood experiences and infidelity: The mediating roles of anxious and avoidant attachment styles
Coyle, P., Doorn, G. H. V., Teese, R., & Dye, J. (2024) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.13088 · Cited by 12
Child Abuse and Neglect and Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Traits: Effects of Attachment, Intolerance of Uncertainty, and Metacognition
Gray, E. C., Sweller, N., & Boag, S. (2024) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-024-00644-3 · Cited by 5
The Relationship of Frailty with Psychopathology, Childhood Traumas and Insecure Attachment in Young Adults: A Cross-Sectional Investigation
Bersani, F. S., Canevelli, M., Imperatori, C., Barchielli, B., Prevete, E., Sciancalepore, F., Vicinanza, R., Maraone, A., Salzillo, M., Tarsitani, L., et al. (2024) · The Journal of Frailty & Aging · doi:10.14283/jfa.2024.49 · Cited by 3
“…a closely intertwined relationship involving the overall organization of parental responsiveness (9-10), but they do not completely overlap; indeed, “the dimensions of parental behaviour are complex and maltreatment can vary by levels of severity, types of maltreatment and number of episodes” (10).”
Road Blocks or Building Blocks? A Qualitative Study on Challenges and Resilience in Romantic Relationships of Youth Exposed to Family Violence
Lünnemann, M. K. M., van der Horst, F. C. P., van de Bongardt, D., & Steketee, M. (2023) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-023-00592-4 · Cited by 5
“This is sup - ported by previous research that concluded that children exposed to family violence are more likely to have an inse - cure attachment with caregivers (Baer & Martinez, 2006 ; Sousa et al., 2011 ).”
Background
Cognitive Functioning of Children in Out-of-Home Care
Eiberg, M. (2023) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-023-00580-8 · Cited by 7
“…factors, such as secure attachment to a primary caretaker, making the child more vulnerable to the negative impact of maltreatment on development (Baer & Martinez, 2006; Breidenstine et al., 2011; Cook et al., 2005; Gerson & Rappaport, 2013; Mclaugh-lin & Lambert, 2017; Sattler & Font, 2018;…”
Background
Do Adult Attachment Style or Personality Mediate the Relationship Between Childhood Maltreatment and Late-Life Depression in Poor Communities?
Jardim, G. B. G., Gomes, I., Gholam‐Rezaee, M., Ranjbar, S., Engroff, P., Santos, M. A., Neto, A. C., & von Gunten, A. (2022) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/08919887221119979 · Cited by 5
Attachment, dependency, and attachment-related behaviors in foster children: A closer look at the nature of the foster child–caregiver relationship
Kungl, M., Gabler, S., Bovenschen, I., Lang, K., Zimmermann, J., & Spangler, G. (2019) · Developmental Child Welfare · doi:10.1177/2516103219845374 · Cited by 7
Childhood Adversities and Resistant Behaviors Toward Law Enforcement Officers in a National Sample of State and Federal Inmates
Marotta, P. (2015) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611115589291 · Cited by 4
“…(i.e., foster care, caretaker substance abuse, parental incarceration) increases the likelihood of forming insecure interpersonal relationships (Baer & Martinez, 2006; Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1990; Fearon, BakermansKranenburg, Van Ijzendoorn, Lapsley, & Roisman, 2010; Finzi, Ram, HarEven, &…”
Attachment Mediates the Childhood Maltreatment–Daily Hassles Link in Low-Income, Suicidal African American Women
Santorelli, N., Woods, A., Carlin, E. R., Marsic, A., & Kaslow, N. (2012) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2012.703290 · Cited by 4
“…relatedness difficulties, low self-esteem, low self-efficacy, adult revictimization, and partner violence perpetration (Alexander, 2009; Alexander et al., 1998; Baer & Martinez, 2006; Drapeau & Perry, 2004; Toth & Cicchetti, 1996; Toth et al., 1997; Whitfield, Anda, Dube, & Felitti, 2003).”
The Impact of Lower Magnitude Stressors on Child and Adolescent Development: The Family Context
Catherall, D. R. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9780470669280.ch3 · Cited by 4
Betrayal trauma, dissociative experiences and dysfunctional family dynamics: Flashbacks, self-harming behaviors and suicide attempts in post-traumatic stress disorder and dissociative disorders
Ozturk, E., & Erdoğan, B. (2021) · Medical Science · doi:10.5455/medscience.2021.10.342 · Cited by 4
“It is a well-documented fact that borderline personality disorder has roots in early abuse, neglect, insecure attachment and other forms of traumas which may occur as a result of the emotional, physical and/or sexual abuse by caregivers [29].”
Background
Attachment insecurity as an explanatory mechanism in the link between childhood emotional abuse and self-satisfaction
Cecen, A. R., & Ündar, H. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08518-z · Cited by 3
“A substantial body of work indicates a robust positive correlation between childhood emotional abuse exposure and levels of both anxious and avoidant attachment dimensions (Baer & Martinez, 2006; Cyr et al., 2010).”
Linking childhood maltreatment to ICD-11 PTSD and CPTSD: Differential roles of insecure attachment and emotion dysregulation
Ho, Y.-S., & Su, Y.-J. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2026.121223 · Cited by 5
Cycles of Abuse: The Mediating Role of Emotional Abuse on the Relationship Between Childhood Adversity and Depressive Symptoms
Doorn, G. H. V., Statham, D. J., Dye, J., Teese, R., & Jenkins, M. (2025) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-025-00722-0 · Cited by 3
“Meta-analytic findings suggest that emotional abuse is a strong predictor of insecure attachment (Baer & Martinez, 2006; Riggs & Kaminski, 2010), although it remains unclear whether emotional abuse differentially predicts anxious or avoidant attachment.”
Non-pharmacologic and pharmacologic care of the neonate with opioid withdrawal syndrome.
Spence, K., & Milota, S. (2024) · Seminars in Perinatology · doi:10.1016/j.semperi.2024.152020 · Cited by 3
How do Emotional Availability, Attachment, and Parenting Stress Relate to Attachment Security? Findings from Turkish Mother-Toddler Dyads
Taşel-Günal, Z., & Arıkan, G. (2024) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-024-02783-5 · Cited by 3
“Studies have indicated that hostile and abusive behaviours of mothers during play and feeding were negatively related to the children ’ s attachment security in both low and high-SES groups (Avizier et al., 1999; Baer & Martinez, 2006; Egeland & Sroufe, 1981).”
How adults maltreated as children relate to work supervisors: relational patterns and processes
Icekson, T., Kaye-Tzadok, A., & Aharon-Peeri, N. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02242-0 · Cited by 3
“Avoidant CM survivors may recede from intimacy in supervisory relationships, possibly reflecting early childhood experiences of a primary caregiver failing to provide responsive care in times of need (Baer & Martinez, 2006).”
Background
The Impact of Attachment on Depression in Married Seniors: Chain Mediating Effects of Self-Esteem and Rumination
Peng, J., Zhang, J., Zhao, K., Wang, X., Wu, Y. Q., Fang, P., & Lv, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.677015 · Cited by 4
“Both dimensions can be divided into high and low levels: high levels of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance are considered insecure attachment and low levels of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance are called secure attachment (Baer and Martinez, 2006).”
Background
Elaborative Reminiscing and Child Receptive Language in the Context of Maltreatment: The Moderating Role of Maternal Sensitivity
Fondren, K., Speidel, R., McDonnell, C. G., & Valentino, K. (2020) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559519898753 · Cited by 4
“Insecure mother–child attachment has also been linked to maltreatment (see Baer & Martinez, 2006, for a review) as well as child language ability (van IJzendoorn et al., 1995).”
Background
Childhood Traumatic Experiences and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Female Adults: Which is the Role Played by Romantic Attachment?
Simonelli, A., & Sacchi, C. (2016) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/65367 · Cited by 3
“Indeed, child abuse victims show significantly higher rates of attachment insecurity (70–100%) compared to the general population (30%) [28].”
Background
Child Development and Well-Being
Geiger, J., & Schelbe, L. (2021) · The Handbook on Child Welfare Practice · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-73912-6_3 · Cited by 3
Foster Care as a Problem and a Solution
Font, S. A., & Gershoff, E. (2020) · SpringerBriefs in psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-41146-6_3 · Cited by 3
Theoretical Frameworks Conceptualizing Intergenerational Transmission of Child Maltreatment
Schelbe, L. A., & Geiger, J. M. (2016) · SpringerBriefs in social work · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43824-5_2 · Cited by 5

Authors: Baer, J. C., & Martinez, C. D.
Affiliations: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
Corresponding author: Baer, Judith C.
Venue: Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2006-08
Volume: 24
Issue: 3
Pages: 187-197
ISSN: 0264-6838 (ISSN-L)
1469-672X
DOI: 10.1080/02646830600821231
OpenAlex: W2159313975
Cited by: 366
References: 49
Citations by year: 2026: 22 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 41 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 3.32
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Child Welfare and Adoption
Keywords: child abuse, insecure attachment, disorganized attachment, infant attachment, Strange Situation Procedure, malnutrition, failure to thrive, early childhood

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Child maltreatment and insecure attachment: a meta‐analysis

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