The DOI matches its Crossref record; 247 of the 249 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Sex differences in the ability to recognise non-verbal displays of emotion: A meta-analysis
Abstract
The present study aimed to quantify the magnitude of sex differences in humans' ability to accurately recognise non-verbal emotional displays. Studies of relevance were those that required explicit labelling of discrete emotions presented in the visual and/or auditory modality. A final set of 551 effect sizes from 215 samples was included in a multilevel meta-analysis. The results showed a small overall advantage in favour of females on emotion recognition tasks (d=0.19). However, the magnitude of that sex difference was moderated by several factors, namely specific emotion, emotion type (negative, positive), sex of the actor, sensory modality (visual, audio, audio-visual) and age of the participants. Method of presentation (computer, slides, print, etc.), type of measurement (response time, accuracy) and year of publication did not significantly contribute to variance in effect sizes. These findings are discussed in the context of social and biological explanations of sex differences in emotion recognition.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Considering the results from both the old analyses and new analyses together, there were sex differences indicating that females relative to males are more proficient in recognizing emotions (SMDs = 0.22–0.30; Merten, 2005; Thompson & Voyer, 2014).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Thompson & Voyer, 2014
In the citing paper
“for Emotion recognition, the studies in the old analyses and new analyses (Merten, 2005; Thompson & Voyer, 2014) indicated that the sex differences favoring females are larger in countries with higher living conditions, but the evidence is weak.”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Thompson & Voyer, 2014
In the citing paper
“women perform better than men in tasks measuring face memory [1] and emotion recognition [2]”
From Effects of sex and gonadectomy on social investigation and social recognition in mice (2015) · cites this paper as [2]
Citations
Cites
Items 201–247 of 247
Roddy, S., Tiedt, L., Kelleher, I., Clarke, M. C., Murphy, J., Rawdon, C., Roche, R. A. P., Calkins, M. E., Richard, J. A., Kohler, C. G., et al. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291712000311 · Cited by 32
Facial emotion recognition in Scottish prisoners
Robinson, L., Spencer, M. D., Thomson, L. D. G., Sprengelmeyer, R., Owens, D. G. C., Stanfield, A. C., Hall, J., Baig, B. J., MacIntyre, D. J., McKechanie, A. G., et al. (2011) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.11.009 · Cited by 31
Blanch‐Hartigan, D. (2011) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2010.11.017 · Cited by 31
The growth of social perception in different racial groups.
Kellogg, W. N., & Eagleson, B. M. (1931) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0071038 · Cited by 31
Bailey, W., Nowicki, S., & Cole, S. P. (1998) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984980244002 · Cited by 29
Stimulus Gender and Emotional Difficulty Level
Dimitrovsky, L., Spector, H., & Levy‐Shiff, R. (2000) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221940003300501 · Cited by 28
Stanners, R. F., Byrd, D. M., & Gabriel, R. (1985) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf00986880 · Cited by 28
Preschool children's ability to identify and label emotions
Stifter, C. A., & Fox, N. A. (1987) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf00999606 · Cited by 28
Perception of Emotion: The Role of Race, Sex, and Presentation Mode
Gitter, A. G., Kozel, N. J., & Mostofsky, D. I. (1972) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1972.9918677 · Cited by 28
Experimental studies of the symbolism of action and voice—II∗
Dusenbury, D. B., & Knower, F. H. (1939) · Quarterly Journal of Speech · doi:10.1080/00335633909380440 · Cited by 27
Csukly, G., Czobor, P., Simon, L., & Takács, B. (2007) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.09.001 · Cited by 26
Dusenbury, D. B., & Knower, F. H. (1938) · Quarterly Journal of Speech · doi:10.1080/00335633809380390 · Cited by 26
The Influence of Alcohol Intake and Alcohol Expectations on the Recognition of Emotions
Walter, N. T., Mutic, S., Markett, S. A., Montag, C., Klein, A. M., & Reuter, M. (2011) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agr082 · Cited by 25
Collins, M. H., & Nowicki, S. (2001) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221320109597487 · Cited by 24
Enhancing children's decoding of facial expression
Beck, L., & Feldman, R. S. (1989) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf00990297 · Cited by 23
Glanville, D. N., & Nowicki, S. (2002) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/009579802237540 · Cited by 21
Bowen, E., & Dixon, L. (2010) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20357 · Cited by 20
MacCann, C., Pearce, N., & Roberts, R. D. (2011) · Psihologijske teme · Cited by 20
Research Note: Effect of Camera Resolution and Bandwidth on Facial Affect Recognition
Cruz, M., Cruz, R. F., Krupinski, E. A., López, A. M., McNeeley, R. M., & Weinstein, R. S. (2004) · Telemedicine Journal and e-Health · doi:10.1089/tmj.2004.10.392 · Cited by 19
Schepman, A., Rodway, P., & Geddes, P. (2012) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2012.03.001 · Cited by 19
Response differentiation to facial expression of emotion as increasing exposure duration.
Ogawa, T., & Suzuki, N. (1999) · PubMed · Cited by 18
Sex differences in emotion recognition by observing body movements
Sogon, S., & Izard, C. E. (1987) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.4992/psycholres1954.29.89 · Cited by 17
Woodworth scale values of the Lightfoot pictures of facial expression.
Levy, N. M., & Schlosberg, H. (1960) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0043130 · Cited by 17
Recognition of facial expressions of emotion in panic disorder
Cai, L., Chen, W., Shen, Y., Wang, X., Wei, L., Zhang, Y., Wang, W., & Chen, W. (2012) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000334252 · Cited by 17
Nonverbal emotion recognition and performance: differences matter differently
Bommer, W. H., Pesta, B. J., & Storrud‐Barnes, S. F. (2011) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683941111099600 · Cited by 16
An evolutionary psychological perspective on gender similarities and differences.
Davies, A. P. C., & Shackelford, T. K. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.6.640 · Cited by 15
Adults' emotional states and recognition of emotion in young children
Carlson, C. R., Gantz, F. P., & Masters, J. C. (1983) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00992966 · Cited by 15
What's in a face? Counseling trainees' ability to read emotions.
Hutchison, A. N., & Gerstein, L. H. (2012) · Training and Education in Professional Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028807 · Cited by 14
Decoding facial expressions: A new test with decoding norms
Leathers, D. G., & Emigh, T. H. (1980) · Quarterly Journal of Speech · doi:10.1080/00335638009383539 · Cited by 14
Nonverbal communication: A cross-cultural comparison of American and Japanese counseling students.
Sweeney, M. A., Cottle, W. C., & Kobayashi, M. J. (1980) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.27.2.150 · Cited by 14
Thingujam, N. S., Laukka, P., & Elfenbein, H. A. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.02.005 · Cited by 13
Judgments of similarity are psychological: The importance of importance.
Zuriff, G. E. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.6.641a · Cited by 12
Ability to recognize emotion in normal and mentally retarded Japanese children
Sogon, S., & Izard, C. E. (1985) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.4992/psycholres1954.27.125 · Cited by 12
Age and cortisol levels modulate judgment of positive and negative facial expressions
Feeney, J. C., Gaffney, P. R., & O’Mara, S. M. (2011) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.09.015 · Cited by 11
Birth Order and Perception of Facial Expressions
Staffieri, J. R., & Bassett, J. E. (1970) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1970.30.2.606 · Cited by 10
Nowicki, S., & Richman, D. (1985) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(85)90004-2 · Cited by 10
Gender Differences in Accuracy of Identification and Rated Intensity of Facial Expressions
Duhaney, A., & McKelvie, S. J. (1993) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1993.76.3.716 · Cited by 10
Differences in the Recognition of Facial Expression of Emotion
Jenness, A. (1932) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1932.9918455 · Cited by 10
SEX OF EXPRESSER AND CORRECT PERCEPTION OF FACIAL EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION
Trnka, R., Kuběna, A. A., & Kuĉerová, E. (2007) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.104.3.1217-1222 · Cited by 9
Children's standards for judging their own facial expressions of emotion
Shields, S. A., & Padawer, J. A. (1984) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf00986998 · Cited by 9
Nonverbal Communication among American and Chinese Students
Hall, C. W., Chia, R. C., & Wang, D. F. (1996) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1996.79.2.419 · Cited by 6
Facial Expressions of Emotions and Ethological Behavioral Categories
Kirouac, G., Bouchard, M., & St-Pierre, A. (1986) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1986.62.2.419 · Cited by 5
Relation of Sex and Sex Role to Adults' Ability to Decode Infants' Emotions
Francis, P. L., Lombardo, J. P., & Simon, L. J. (1987) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1987.65.2.595 · Cited by 5
Culture and sex effect in recognizing emotions by facial and gestural cues
Giovannini, D., & Bitti, P. E. R. (1981) · IRIS UNIMORE (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia) · Cited by 5
Role of Method of Stimulus Presentation in Research on Recognition of Facial Affect
Mccown, W., Dewolfe, A., Shack, J., & Maier, R. A. (1989) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1989.68.3c.1095 · Cited by 4
Morgado, I., Cangemi, J. J., Miller, R. K., & O’Connor, J. (1992) · Revista Interamericana de Psicología/Interamerican Journal of Psychology · Cited by 3
Accuracy in Judging Emotional Expressions as Related to Understanding of Literature
Weisgerber, C. A. (1957) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1957.9714324 · Cited by 1
Research works printed but not linked: 20
- *Barth J. M., 1997, Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43, 107
- 10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2049 · DOI
- Bremner J. D., 2001, Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 35, 55
- *Brunori P., 1979, Italian Journal of Psychology, 6, 265
- *Daly E. M., 1980, Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 26, 25
- 10.1016/S02782626(03)00008-3 · DOI
- *Giovannini D., 1981, Italian Journal of Psychology, 8, 95
- Hox J. J., 2003, Multilevel modeling: Methodological advances, issues, and applications, 90
- *Kombos N. A., 1985, Educational & Psychological Research, 5, 19
- *Kozel N. J., 1969, Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 4, 39
- *MacCann C., 2011, Psihologijske Teme, 20, 393
- *Maxim L. A., 2003, Facta Universitatis - Series Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History, 10, 745
- *Morgado I. A., 1993, Studia Psychologica, 35, 73
- 10.1037/0021-843X.105.2.271 · DOI
- *Nowicki S. Jr, 1998, Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 124, 39
- Raudenbush S. W., 2011, HLM 7: Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling user's manual
- Reber A. S., 2001, Dictionary of psychology
- 10.1037/0022-0167.27.2.150 · DOI
- 10.1037/0021-843X.89.3.428 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.32.6.1068 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Sex differences in anxiety and depression clinical perspectives
Altemus, M., Sarvaiya, N., & Neill Epperson, C. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.05.004 · Cited by 1,413
“For example, adaptive behavioral differences in terms of childrearing seem to include, in females, superior social cognition and capacity for attunement with others, important for cognitive and social development of offspring (Halpern, 2007; Gur et al., 2012; Thompson and Voyer, 2014).”
BackgroundEmpathy: Gender effects in brain and behavior
Christov-Moore, L., Simpson, E. A., Coudé, G., Grigaityte, K., Iacoboni, M., & Ferrari, P. F. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001 · Cited by 1,137
“However, meta-analyses examining gender and sex differences in empathy provide results supporting fairly stable gender differences across a broad range of measures (e.g., Cohn, 1991; Eisenberg and Lennon, 1983; Feingold, 1994; Hall, 1978, 1984; Hoffman, 1977; O’Brien et al., 2013; Thompson and Voyer, 2014; although, f…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialEvaluating gender similarities and differences using metasynthesis.
Zell, E., Križan, Z., & Teeter, S. R. (2015) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0038208 · Cited by 465
Eliot, L., Ahmed, A., Khan, H., & Patel, J. Y. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.026 · Cited by 379
Estrogen, Stress, and Depression: Cognitive and Biological Interactions
Albert, K. M., & NEWHOUSE, P. A. (2019) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095557 · Cited by 373
Metadata
- Authors
- Thompson, A. E., & Voyer, D.
- Affiliations
- University of New Brunswick (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Voyer, Daniel
- Venue
- Cognition and Emotion
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2014-01-08
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1164-1195
- ISSN
- 0269-9931 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-0600
- OpenAlex
- W2023112595
- Cited by
- 476
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 2.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cognition & Emotion (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- sex differences, emotion recognition, facial expressions, vocal emotion, sensory modalities, age effects
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Emotions, Facial Expression, Female, Humans, Male, Photic Stimulation, Sex Characteristics, Recognition, Psychology, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
