Developing onshore wind farms in Aotearoa New Zealand: Carbon and energy footprints
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ABSTRACT In recognition of deeper insights into the implications of wind farm deployments, this paper addresses the need for an updated Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for onshore wind generation systems, using 4.3 MW wind turbines and direct drive permanent magnet synchronous generators. The environmental and energy performances were estimated through an LCA for an onshore wind plant under construction in Aotearoa New Zealand with a total nameplate capacity of 176 MW. This study used real construction data showing literature data overestimates civil works and underestimates transportation contributions in the wind farm footprint. Further, different end‐of‐life management alternatives for turbine blades are analysed: landfill, mechanical recycling, and chemical recycling. The results indicate a carbon footprint of 10.8–9.7 gCO 2eq /kWh, a greenhouse gas payback time of 1.5–1.7 years for avoided combined cycle gas turbines, and an energy payback time of 0.4–0.5 years, in which the chemical recycling of the blades is the lower emission solution overall. The outcomes underscore the environmental efficiency of onshore wind farms and their important role in the energy transition. Notably, the manufacturing of wind turbines is the primary contributor to the carbon and energy footprints, highlighting a critical area for targeted environmental mitigation strategies.
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The carbon intensities of electricity from photovoltaics and onshore wind are estimated at approximately 20-80 gCO2-eq/kWh and 10-30 gCO2-eq/kWh, respectively, which are substantially lower than the EU grid average of around 230-280 gCO2-eq/kWh but are not negligible and must be integrated into well-to-wheel emission analyses.
“For instance, the carbon intensities of electricity from photovoltaics and onshore wind are estimated at approximately 20-80 gCO 2 -eq/kWh and 10-30 gCO 2 -eq/kWh, respectively, which, while substantially lower than the EU grid average of around 230-280 gCO 2 -eq/kWh, depending on fuel content, is not negligible and must be integrated into WtW emission analyses [3,9,314,315].”
From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [314]
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
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Cited by
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Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions
Yılbaşı, Z. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17136145 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
- Authors
- Pincelli, I. P., Hinkley, J., & Brent, A.
- Affiliations
- Victoria University of Wellington (NZ)
- Stellenbosch University (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Pincelli, Isabella Pimentel
- Venue
- Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2024-05-14
- Volume
- 55
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1005-1027
- ISSN
- 0303-6758 (ISSN-L)
- 1175-8899
- PMC
- PMC12054583
- OpenAlex
- W4396887084
- Cited by
- 14
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 3
- FWCI
- 1.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Victoria University of Wellington (Doctoral Scholarship)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Wind Energy Research and Development
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Photovoltaic Systems and Sustainability
- Keywords
- onshore wind farms, carbon footprint, energy footprint, life cycle assessment, wind turbines, direct-drive permanent magnet synchronous generator, chemical recycling, mechanical recycling, landfilling, energy payback time, energy transition, New Zealand
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