Cited by 197Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCriminal Justice and PenologyEducation Discipline and Inequality

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 39 of the 39 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Race and disparities in sentencing: A test of the liberation hypothesis

Spohn, Cassia, Cederblom, Jerry·1991·Justice Quarterly

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

This paper builds on Kalven and Zeisel's “liberation hypothesis” and explores the possibility that racial discrimination in sentencing is confined to less serious cases. We examined the sentences imposed on defendants convicted of violent felonies in Detroit. We found that defendant's race had a direct effect only on the decision to incarcerate but had indirect effects on both incarceration and sentence length. Further analysis revealed an interaction between the race of the defendant, the seriousness of the case, and the harshness of the sentence. Using a number of measures of the seriousness of the case, we found that race had a significant effect on incarceration only in less serious cases. Our findings provide dramatic support for the liberation hypothesis and highlight the importance of using an interactive rather than an additive model in sentencing research.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/07418829100091071

Cites

39 of 39 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Linear Probability, Logit, and Probit Models
Aldrich, J. H., & Nelson, F. D. (1984) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412984744 · Cited by 2,600
Shadow Prices, Market Wages, and Labor Supply
Heckman, J. (1974) · Econometrica · doi:10.2307/1913937 · Cited by 1,852
An Introduction to Sample Selection Bias in Sociological Data
Berk, R. A. (1983) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095230 · Cited by 1,213
The American Jury
Kalven, H., & Zeisel, H. (1971) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 543
Extra-Legal Attributes and Criminal Sentencing: An Assessment of a Sociological Viewpoint
Hagan, J. L. (1974) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053080 · Cited by 445
The Practice of Law as Confidence Game Organizational Cooptation of a Profession
Blumberg, A. S. (1967) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3052933 · Cited by 419
Racial Discrimination in Criminal Sentencing: A Critical Evaluation of the Evidence with Additional Evidence on the Death Penalty
Kleck, G. (1981) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095079 · Cited by 380
The Changing Forms of Racial/Ethnic Biases in Sentencing
Zatz, M. S. (1987) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427887024001005 · Cited by 310
Research on Sentencing: The Search for Reform
Harris, D. J., Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Martin, S. B., & Tonry, M. (1984) · The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-) · doi:10.2307/1143656 · Cited by 307
The Prosecutor's Role in Plea Bargaining
Alschuler, A. W. (1968) · The University of Chicago Law Review · doi:10.2307/1598832 · Cited by 287

Show all 39 references

Research works printed but not linked: 11

Baldus David C., 1985, U.C. Davis Law Review, 18, 1375
Barnett Arnold, 1985, U.C. Davis Law Review, 18, 1327
Bayley Christopher T., 1976, Judicature, 60, 229
Bowers William J., 1980, Crime and Delinquency, 74, 1067
Ervin S.J., 1971, Preventive Detention
Goldkamp John, 1980, Justice System Journal, 5, 234
10.2307/2578081 · DOI
10.2307/2578906 · DOI
Klepper Steven, 1983, Research on Sentencing: A Search for Reform, 2, 55
Riedel Marc, 1976, Temple Law Quarterly, 49, 261
Sutton L. Paul, 1978, Variations in Federal Criminal Sentences: A Statistical Assessment at the National Level

Sorted by citations

Items 101–197 of 197

Diversity and Citizen Participation
Bradbury, M., & Williams, M. R. (2012) · Administration & Society · doi:10.1177/0095399712459729 · Cited by 13
Making the call: how does perceived race affect desire to call the police?
Sola, J. L., & Kubrin, C. E. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-023-09571-z · Cited by 13
Race, Geography, and Juvenile Justice: An Exploration of the Liberation Hypothesis
Taylor, A. P., Guevara, L., Boyd, L. M., & Brown, R. A. (2012) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/2153368712443563 · Cited by 12
Latinos/as in the criminal and juvenile justice systems
Urbina, M. G. (2006) · Critical Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10612-006-9018-9 · Cited by 12
Interacting Race/Ethnicity and Legal Factors on Sentencing Decisions: A Test of the Liberation Hypothesis
Jordan, K. L., & Bowman, R. E. (2020) · Corrections · doi:10.1080/23774657.2020.1726839 · Cited by 11
Status, emotional displays, and the relationally-based evaluation of criminals and their behavior
Dilks, L. M., McGrimmon, T. S., & Thye, S. R. (2014) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.11.016 · Cited by 11
The effect of legal and extralegal variables on sentencing in Israel
Rattner, A. (1996) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418829600092851 · Cited by 10
Assessing the Impact of Mexican Nativity on Sentence Length
Orrick, E. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2014) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/0887403414528949 · Cited by 10
Calibrating Student Perceptions of Punishment: a Specific Test of General Deterrence
Nixon, T. S., & Barnes, J. C. (2018) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-018-9466-2 · Cited by 10
Parole, Neighborhood and Reentry Outcomes: A Contextualized Analysis
Liu, L. (2020) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x20946928 · Cited by 11
Trickle-up report writing: The impact of a proarrest policy for domestic disturbances
Lanza‐Kaduce, L., Greenleaf, R. G., & Donahue, M. E. (1995) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418829500096121 · Cited by 10
The Processing of Homicides in the Courts: An Examination of Multiple Case Outcomes
Pizarro, J. M., Zgoba, K. M., Salerno, L. M., & Circo, G. M. (2018) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/2153368718759401 · Cited by 9
Equality at the Price of Justice
Schlesinger, T. (2008) · NWSA Journal · doi:10.1353/ff.2008.a246753 · Cited by 9
Entering the System: Ethnic Differences in Closing Juvenile Criminal Files in Israel
Mesch, G. S., & Fishman, G. (1999) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427899036002003 · Cited by 9
The Impact of COVID-19 on Sentencing Practices
Zvonkovich, J., Kleiman, M., Hester, R., & Strange, C. C. (2023) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-023-09730-y · Cited by 8
Age, Racial/Ethnic Minority Status, Gender and Misdemeanor Sentencing
Muñoz, E. A., & Freng, A. B. (2008) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1300/j222v05n04_02 · Cited by 8
Juvenile transfer status and the sentencing of violent offenders: a test of the liberation hypothesis
Lehmann, P. S. (2021) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2021.1947348 · Cited by 8
Race of appellant, sentencing guidelines, and decisionmaking in criminal appeals: A research note
Williams, J. J. (1995) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/0047-2352(94)00046-8 · Cited by 8
Assessing the relevance of legal and extralegal factors in felony drug sentencing: the case of Michigan
Iles, G., Bumphus, V. W., & Zehel, L. (2011) · Criminal Justice Studies · doi:10.1080/1478601x.2011.592730 · Cited by 8
Federal Sentencing Guidelines and United States v. Booker : Social Context and Sentencing Disparity
Nowacki, J. S. (2015) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/0887403415619987 · Cited by 8
The Liberation Hypothesis Perspective and Juvenile Court Outcomes: Implications for an Understanding of the Interplay Between Offender and Offense Characteristics
Beaudry‐Cyr, M., Leiber, M. J., Brubaker, S. J., & Jaynes, C. M. (2019) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128719894916 · Cited by 8
Is Chivalry Dead?: An Examination of Charge Reductions in One Ohio Jurisdiction
Goulette, N. W. (2020) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/08974454.2020.1753141 · Cited by 8
Racial/Ethnic Misdemeanor Sentencing Disparities
Muñoz, E. A., & Sápp, S. G. (2003) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1300/j222v01n02_02 · Cited by 8
Assessing Racial Discrimination in Parole ReleasePreprint
Méchoulan, S., & Sahuguet, N. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1874251 · Cited by 8
Prison Violence, Gender, and Perceptions: Testing a Missing Link in Discretion Research
Bierie, D. M. (2011) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-011-9123-5 · Cited by 7
Sentencing disparities by race of offender and victim: Women homicide offenders in Alabama, 1929–1985
Hanke, P. J. (1995) · Sociological Spectrum · doi:10.1080/02732173.1995.9982101 · Cited by 7
Investigation and Prosecution of Sexual Assault, Domestic Violence, and Stalking
Rosay, A. B., Wood, D. S., Rivera, M. A. P., Postle, G., & TePas, K. (2013) · ScholarWorks - UA (University of Alaska System) · Cited by 7
Attenuating Disparities Through Four Areas of Change
Schlesinger, T. (2015) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12130 · Cited by 6
Judicial diversity and sentencing disparity across U.S. District Courts
Crow, M. S., & Goulette, N. W. (2022) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.101973 · Cited by 6
The Noncitizen Penalty in U.S. Federal Courts: Differences in Punishment by Region of Citizenship
Kurpiel, A., & Albanese, A. (2023) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1177/07311214231180482 · Cited by 6
Racial, Ethnic, Gender, and Economic Sentencing Disparity
Lehmann, P. S., & Gomez, A. I. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77565-0_8 · Cited by 6
The Value of Quantitative Analysis for a Critical Understanding of Crime and Society
Barkan, S. E. (2009) · Critical Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10612-009-9085-9 · Cited by 6
NORTH CAROLINA SENTENCING AND POLICY ADVISORY COMMISSION
Katzenelson, S. (2006) · Cited by 6
Does Criminal Specialization Predict Case Processing?
Yan, S. (2018) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128718765123 · Cited by 5
Bribery and corruption: assessing the fairness of the Malaysian judicial system
Houqe, M. N., Zahir‐ul‐Hassan, M. K., Idrus, M. A., & van Zijl, T. (2020) · Crime Law and Social Change · doi:10.1007/s10611-019-09882-1 · Cited by 5
The Non-Constant Effect of Defendant Sex across Criminal History: How and When Does Criminal History Condition Sex Disparity at Sentencing?
Holmes, B., & Ruhland, E. L. (2023) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/08974454.2023.2182656 · Cited by 5
And Justice for All? Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Federal Drug Courts in California and the US
Chen, E. Y., & Nomura, K. (2015) · California Journal of Politics and Policy · doi:10.5070/p2cjpp7227275 · Cited by 5
Do Objective Measures reduce the Disproportionate Rates of Minority Youth Placed in Detention: Validation of a Risk Assessment Instrument?
Simpson, T. P. (2010) · ScholarWorks @ The University of New Orleans (The University of New Orleans) · Cited by 5
Is the Offense Serious Axis Free of Extralegal Influence?: Assessing the Predictors of a ‘Legally Relevant’ Guideline Criterion
Kautt, P. M. (2008) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-008-9048-9 · Cited by 5
Evidence of cumulative disadvantage and the liberation hypothesis in court cases involving resisting arrest
Richardson, R. L., & Brennan, P. K. (2025) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102513 · Cited by 4
Conviction Odds in Chicago Homicide Cases: Does Race/Ethnicity Matter?
Martin, C. (2013) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2013.739386 · Cited by 4
Historical Context Matters: Health Research, Health Care, and Bodies of Color in the United States
Chisolm‐Straker, M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-70675-3_14 · Cited by 4
Institutional Responses to Misconduct in Juvenile Prisons
MacDonald, J. M. (1997) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/088740349700800206 · Cited by 4
Social Conditioning of Police Officers: Exploring the interactive effects of driver demographics on traffic stop outcomes
Tillyer, R. (2008) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 4
Military Justice: Case Processing and Sentencing Decisions in America’s “Other” Criminal Courts
Breen, P. D., & Johnson, B. D. (2017) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1335763 · Cited by 4
Bias in prosecutorial decision making: Bridging focal concerns & group threat
Avni, O., Guetzkow, J., & Hasisi, B. (2024) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2024.102192 · Cited by 4
An Exploratory Study of Animal Cruelty Prosecution in New York
Kordzek, A. (2014) · Society and Animals · doi:10.1163/15685306-12341354 · Cited by 3
Age, Race/Ethnicity, and Offense Severity: An Examination of the Liberation Hypothesis for Juvenile Case Outcomes at Final Disposition
Bryson, S. L., & Peck, J. H. (2023) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287231175039 · Cited by 3
Crime control policy and community corrections practice
Byrne, J. M., & Taxman, F. S. (1994) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/0149-7189(94)90060-4 · Cited by 3
Race and Sentencing Outcomes in Michigan
Hawkins, H. C. (2005) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1300/j222v03n01_05 · Cited by 3
The Juvenile Penalty Revisited: Sentencing Transferred Youth Under Presumptive Guidelines in the “Kids Are Different” Era
Lehmann, P. S., & Lee, J. E. (2025) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278251347567 · Cited by 2
Effects of Victim Race on Police Arrests for Hate Crimes
Han, S., & Son, I. (2024) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2024.2400506 · Cited by 2
Revisiting the Use of Total Incarceration Variables in Understanding Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Sentencing
Yan, S., Montes, A. N., Omori, M. K., Petersen, N., & Spohn, C. (2025) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287251344534 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
The Interaction between Legal Representation and Extralegal Factors on Nonviolent Misdemeanor Case Outcomes
Smith, A., & Maddan, S. (2022) · Justice System Journal · doi:10.1080/0098261x.2022.2067800 · Cited by 2
Gender Differences in Criminal Sentencing
Rodriguez, S. F., Curry, T. R., & Lee, G. (2006) · Social Science Quarterly · Cited by 2
Plea Discount Deviations: a Mechanism for Gender Disparities in Hong Kong
Ri, S., & Cheng, K. K. (2022) · Asian Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11417-022-09361-y · Cited by 2
The Tension Between Combating Terrorism and Protecting the Right to a Fair Trial in Indonesia
Istiqomah, M., & Alimardani, A. (2023) · Lentera Hukum · doi:10.19184/ejlh.v10i1.37197 · Cited by 2
Criminal Sentencing In the Court Communities of South Carolina: An Examination of offender, Judge, and County Characteristics
Hester, R. (2012) · Scholar Commons (University of South Carolina) · Cited by 2
Examining the Diffusion of Police Arrests across Urban Space: Territoriality, the Police Role, and Isomorphism
Cooper, J. A. (2012) · Cited by 2
Conditional Race Disparities in Criminal Sentencing: A Test of the Liberation Hypothesis from a Non-Guidelines StatePreprint
Hester, R., & Hartman, T. K. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2519252 · Cited by 2
Perceptions of Anti-Black Bias in the Criminal Justice System Contribute to Pro-Black (Versus White) Bias in Criminal Justice Research
Lesick, T. L., & March, D. S. (2024) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2024.2415919 · Cited by 1
Exploring racial disparities across prosecutorial decision points: evidence from a Midwest prosecutor’s office
Bailey, C. M., Hylton, S., Henry, T. K. S., Diaz, C. L., & Grommon, E. L. (2025) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2025.2483329 · Cited by 1
Unequal Policing of Black Motorists in Black Communities by Age and Gender: A Short Report on Intraracial Applications of the Veil-of-Darkness Test
Hannon, L., & Biddle, M. (2025) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-025-09879-8 · Cited by 1
The role of case management in misdemeanor prosecution
Graef, L., & Ouss, A. (2025) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.70033 · Cited by 2
The hidden discount: Examining racial disparity in the use of suspended sentences
Petersen, K., Johnson, B. D., Redlich, A. D., & Galvin, M. A. (2025) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.70035 · Cited by 2
Models of Bias (not justice): Interactive analysis is better than the additive approach for explaining the impact of race and gender on processing decisions in the Juvenile Justice System
Mcguire, D. (2004) · Cited by 1
Student-Athlete Male-Perpetrated Sexual Assault Against Men: Racial Disparities in Perceptions of Culpability and Punitiveness
Powers, R. A., Centelles, V., & Williams, J. (2023) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-023-09733-9 · Cited by 1
The Unjust Plight of Minority Men and Punishment: A Du Boisian Analysis
Okafor, P. A. W. (2025) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687251360722 · Cited by 1
Racial Disproportionality in Iowa and Missouri’s Prison Systems
Barnum, C. C., Barnum, T. C., & Giese, L. (2013) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/2153368713504787 · Cited by 1
Juvenile Court Outcomes for Retail Offenders: An Examination of Offense Type, Sex, and Race/Ethnicity
Elligson, R. L., Peck, J. H., & Ray, J. V. (2021) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287211022621 · Cited by 1
A Time Study of Juvenile Probation Services in Illinois
Castellano, T. C. (1998) · Cited by 1
Gender and Terrorism: A Homeland Security Perspective
Rodriguez-Spahia, D. (2018) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) · Cited by 1
Sentencing, Trends, and Disparities: Crime
Bradley, M. S., & Ulmer, J. T. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.45083-x · Cited by 1
Race: Prespectives and Crime
Leiber, M. J., & Peck, J. H. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.45078-6 · Cited by 1
Sentencing Research
Ulmer, J. T. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_559 · Cited by 1
Stereotypes and deadly force decision-making
Chaires, M. (2015) · doi:10.54014/ak3s-t06t · Cited by 1
The Determinants of Court-Martial Decisions: An Empirical Investigation into the Air Force's Criminal Court Process
Breen, P. D. (2015) · University Libraries (University of Maryland) · doi:10.13016/m2mc9f
A Multimethod Analysis of Sentencing Decisions in a Pennsylvania County
Iannacchione, B. M. (2012)
A Study of Social Control in Florida: The Impact of Race and Ethnicity on the Designation of Individuals as Habitual or Career Offenders
Hughes, C. C. (2007)
Beyond Black and White: An Examination of Afrocentric Facial Features and Sex in Criminal Sentencing
Petersen, A. M. (2000) · doi:10.15760/etd.1854
Predicting Success in the Montgomery County Pre-Release Center: The Actuarial Efficacy of the Selection Suitability Scale
Flower, S. M. (2007) · University Libraries (University of Maryland)
Prosecutorial Discretion across Federal Sentencing Reforms: Immediate and Enduring Effects of Unwarranted Disparity
Cano, M. V. (2015)
The role of evidentiary weight in judicial sentencing determinations
Nir, E. (2016) · doi:10.7282/t3xp7755
Moral time and homicide investigations.
Lapsey, D. S. (2017) · doi:10.18297/etd/2681
Pathways to Detention
Barrett, S. (2007) · Griffith Research Online · doi:10.25904/1912/2754
Judicial Elections, Public Opinion, and their Impact on State Criminal Justice Policy
Taylor, T. N. (2020) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · doi:10.13023/etd.2020.327
Références
(2015) · Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pum.2947
Race and the Sanctioning of Misdemeanor Defendants
Moricette, P., Stolzenberg, L., & D’Alessio, S. J. (2023) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-023-09724-w · Cited by 1
Impact of General Death Penalty Belief on Preferred Punishment in Specific Cases: An Exploratory Examination of Chinese Criminal Justice Professionals’ Perspectives
Liang, B., Liu, J., & Lu, H. (2025) · European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10610-025-09632-1
Prosecuting working girls: examining the influence of race and gender on prosecutorial decision-making among vice crimes
Henry, T. K. S., Niebuhr, N., & Muftić, L. R. (2026) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2026.2612962
Understanding punitive responses: an analysis of school exclusion through the lens of self-control theory
Carson, D. C., Waggoner, K., & Bailey, C. M. (2026) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2026.2653582
What is theoretical support? Explanation as a central barometer in sentencing research
Holmes, B., & Arrigo, S. R. (2026) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2026.102670
Legal and Extra-legal Determinants of Prosecutorial Case Dismissal: Plea Agreements, Deferred Adjudication, and Pretrial Diversion
Hartley, R. D., & Tillyer, M. S. (2026) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-026-09925-z
Nature, nurture, and public punitiveness: an experimental vignette study
DiRienzo, F. P., Moglovkin, T., & Liu, H. (2026) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-026-09760-6
Pathways to Segregation: Examining Disparities in Prison Discipline Decisions
Palmieri, M., & McNeeley, S. (2026) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548261467962
Using Variance Decomposition to Test Criminal Justice Theory: A Redeliberation of the Liberation Hypothesis
Holmes, B., & Arrigo, S. R. (2026) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-026-09950-y
Racial disparities in stays of imposition under the Minnesota sentencing guidelines
Lehmann, P. S., & Sarmiento, S. G.-G. (2026) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2026.102754

Authors: Spohn, C., & Cederblom, J.
Affiliations: University of Nebraska at Omaha (US)
ORCID: Spohn, Cassia
Venue: Justice Quarterly
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1991-09-01
Volume: 8
Issue: 3
Pages: 305-327
ISSN: 0741-8825 (ISSN-L)
1745-9109
DOI: 10.1080/07418829100091071
OpenAlex: W2013575550
Cited by: 197
References: 39
Citations by year: 2026: 8 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 9
FWCI: 1.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Justice Quarterly (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
Keywords: sentence length, interactive model, Detroit

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Race and disparities in sentencing: A test of the liberation hypothesis

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks