Vacuum Carbothermic Reduction of Al2O3, BeO, MgO-CaO, TiO2, ZrO2, HfO2 + ZrO2, SiO2, SiO2 + Fe2O3, and GeO2to the Metals. A Thermodynamic Study
Abstract
Thermochemical equilibrium calculations are carried out to elucidate improved conditions for the production of Al, Si, FeSi, Ti, Mg, Hf, Zr, Be, and Ge by the high-temperature carbothermic reduction of their oxides, and for the production of Mg by the silicothermic reduction of MgO–CaO. The onset temperature for the formation of free Al, Be, Si, Ti, Mg, Hf, and Zr in the gas phase is considerably lowered by decreasing the total pressure, enabling their vacuum distillation. An important prediction of vacuum operation is the suppression of undesired by-products, such as Al-carbide, Al4C3, and the Al-oxycarbides Al2OC and Al4O4C. These species considerably interfere in the carbothermic Al production at an ambient pressure, as shown in preliminary experiments using induction furnace irradiation. CO coproduced in these reactions may be water-gas shifted to syngas and further processed to hydrogen and liquid fuels.
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Halmann et al. found that vacuum condition facilitates the decline of reaction temperature from 1600°C to 900°C with pressure decreasing from 1 bar to 10^-5 bar.
“Halmann et al. also investigated the thermodynamics for the reactants of Fe2O3, SiO 2 , and C, and found that vacuum condition also facilitates the decline of reaction temperature (from 1600°C to 900°C with pressure decreasing from 1 bar to 10 -5 bar). 126”
From Energy system and resource utilization in space: A state-of-the-art review (2024) · cites this paper as [126]
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- Authors
- Halmann, M., Frei, A., & Steinfeld, A.
- Affiliations
- Weizmann Institute of Science (IL)
- Paul Scherrer Institute (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Halmann, M.
- ORCID
- Steinfeld, A.
- Venue
- Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2011-10
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 247-266
- ISSN
- 0882-7508 (ISSN-L)
- 1547-7401
- OpenAlex
- W1947343779
- Cited by
- 63
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 6.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review (publishedVersion)
- DORA PSI (Paul Scherrer Institute) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Metallurgical Processes and Thermodynamics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Iron and Steelmaking Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Chemical Looping and Thermochemical Processes
- Keywords
- carbothermal reduction, vacuum distillation, metal oxide reduction, thermodynamic equilibrium, aluminum production, silicon production, titanium production, magnesium production, zirconium production, beryllium production, silicothermic reduction, Al4C3, high-temperature reduction
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