From the general to the situated: three decades of metacognition
Abstract
This paper discusses the notion of metacognition, which is usually defined as ‘cognitions about cognitions’, or ‘thinking about one's own thinking’. In so doing, it reviews the literature on metacognition over the past three decades, listing different definitions of the term and identifying diverse origins of processes metacognitive. Aspects of the nature of metacognition are discussed, highlighting some of its important yet problematic dimensions, and the potentially positive impact metacognition can have on the learning process is addressed. The paper also relates metacognition to the broader area of general thinking skills and discusses the appropriateness of practising metacognition with primary school children. The paper concludes with a synopsis of research in the outcomes of metacognition, in general, and in science education, in particular, highlighting recent interest in blending metacognitive thinking with science subject matter. Directions for research in science education with an interest in metacognition are also proposed.
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Improved metacognition helps individuals with management of time, focus, and effort, problem-solving, academic performance, emotional well-being, and overall decision-making.
“Studies have shown that improved metacognition helps individuals with management of time, focus, and effort [212], problem-solving [67], academic performance [45,52,106,126,180,214], emotional well-being [200], and overall decision-making [206].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [67]
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Dennis, J. L., & Somerville, M. P. (2022) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-022-00904-x · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“(Georghiades, 2004, p. 379) Given the scarcity of research examining metacognition in teaching practice, the primary aim of this study was to investigate whether the metacognition theory-practice gap extended to the teaching practice of academics in HE.”
BackgroundInfluentialKung, R. L., & Linder, C. (2007) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-007-9006-9 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“This is partly due to the varied definitions of metacognition and the number of conceivable dimensions encompassed by the term ( Georghiades 2004 ).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWall, K. (2008) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2008.03.004 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Metacognition has been subsequently given high status as a feature (Georghiades 2004), with characteristics of transferable learning skills, awareness of the process of learning and sustained benefit of metacognitive knowledge.”
BackgroundSong, J., Loyal, S., & Lond, B. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.607577 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Metacognition refers to the human ability to reflect upon our own perceptions, thoughts, and actions (Valk et al., 2016; Sternberg, 2018); and is therefore, broadly defined as cognitions about cognitions, or thinking about one’s own thinking (Roberts and Erdos, 1993; Georghiades, 2004).”
BackgroundWhitebread, D., & Grau, V. (2011) · Contemporary trends and issues in science education · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2132-6_6 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Zohar, A. E., & Lustov, E. (2018) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.76592 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“The findings confirm the findings of previous researchers [24, 26, 22] regarding a prevalent theory-practice gap in the area of teaching metacognition.”
ResultKim, J. H. (2017) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2017.10.006 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“According to prior research on metacognition, successful learning often results from participation in the specific awareness and regulation of cognition (Azevedo, 2005; Georghiades, 2004; Hattie et al., 1996; Wang et al., 1990).”
MethodMarshall, J., Smart, J. B., & Alston, D. M. (2016) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.007 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Divrik, R., Pilten, P., & Taş, A. M. (2021) · lnternational Electronic Journal of Elementary Education · doi:10.26822/iejee.2021.191 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“…metacognitive strategies are used to create a supportive classroom environment that will encourage the development of students’ metacognitive skills and enable them to take responsibility for their learning (Barın, 2016; Georghiades, 2004; Lin, 2001; Tian, 2016; Vula et al., 2017; Weaver, 2012).”
MethodSarıbaş, D., & Bayram, H. (2009) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.014 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“knowledge but it is also difficult to foresee which knowledge will be essential for the future ( Georghiades, 2004 ).”
BackgroundHomework as a metacognitive tool in an undergraduate physics course
Mota, A. R., Körhasan, N. D., Miller, K., & Mazur, E. (2019) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.15.010136 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Extending Students’ Practice of Metacognitive Regulation Skills with the Science Writing Heuristic
van Opstal, M. T., & Daubenmire, P. L. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2015.1019385 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Several studies have identified that chemistry students lack metacognitive use and awareness in laboratory classrooms (Georghiades, 2004; Haidar & Al Naqabi, 2008; Rickey & Stacy, 2000).”
BackgroundCareer-long learning: Relationship between cognitive and metacognitive skills
Burman, N. J., Boscardin, C., & van Schaik, S. M. (2014) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/0142159x.2014.909010 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…that evaluate lifelong learning and/or self-directed learning, but these measure attitudes and beliefs towards learning, rather than actual behaviors or skills (Hoban et al. 2005; Hojat et al. 2009; Schraw & Dennison 1994), and how they relate to metacognitive skills is unclear (Georghiades 2004).”
BackgroundMichalsky, T., Zion, M., & Mevarech, Z. R. (2007) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/320v-8h4w-1123-44r6 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Fiorella, L., Vogel-Walcutt, J. J., & Fiore, S. M. (2011) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.017 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“While these strategies appear to be useful, little research has examined them during complex decision-making contexts within SBT (Georghiades, 2004; Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996).”
BackgroundHow is Students’ Understanding of Nature of Science Related with Their Metacognitive Awareness?
Goren, D., & Kaya, E. (2022) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-022-00381-9 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Students’ ability and capacity to express their metacognitive actions and processes showed their metacognitive awareness (Georghiades, 2004).”
BackgroundGoede, J. D., & Theron, C. C. (2007) · Bestuursdinamika · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Metacognitive Inventory for nursing students in Taiwan: instrument development and testing
Hsu, L. (2010) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2010.05427.x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
From failure to success: working with under‐prepared transfer students
Tipton, R. L., & Bender, P. A. (2006) · Reference Services Review · doi:10.1108/00907320610685337 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Thomas, G. P., & Anderson, D. P. (2012) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-012-9308-z · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“This definition has been employed in numerous studies investigating and conceptualizing metacognition in science education (e.g., Anderson, Nashon & Thomas 2009; Baird 1986; Georghiades 2004).”
MethodCognitive stimulation in children at social risk: its transference to school performance
Korzeniowski, C., Ison, M. S., & de Anglat, H. D. (2017) · International journal of psychological research · doi:10.21500/20112084.2760 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…to develop these cognitive functions: cognitive flexibility, 6 to 7-year olds (Davidson et al., 2006); planning, 7 to 10-year olds (Anderson et al., 2002; Matute et al., 2008) and metacognition, from 8 years old onwards (Georghiades, 2004; Roebers, Cimeli, Röthlisberger, & Neuenschwander, 2012).”
Metacognitive instructional behaviours of preschool teachers in mathematical activities
Temur, Ö. D., Özsoy, G., & Turgut, S. (2019) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-019-01069-1 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of a Newly Integrated Multidimensional School Engagement Scale
Hashim, R. A., & Sani, A. M. (2008) · Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction · doi:10.32890/mjli.5.2008.7595 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Akman, Ö., & Alagöz, B. (2018) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2018.060102 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“In addition, it was understood that the discussions raised citizens' tolerance (42) and increased interest in social issues (22).”
BackgroundLing, H., & Venesaar, U. (2015) · Engineering Economics · doi:10.5755/j01.ee.26.3.5283 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Metacognition and Metacognitive Awareness in Entrepreneurship Education Metacognition has been referred to as „thinking about one‟s own thinking‟ (Georghiades, 2004, p. 365).”
BackgroundAssessing the impact of metacognitive postreflection exercises on problem-solving skillfulness
Reinhard, A., Felleson, A., Turner, P. C., & Green, M. (2022) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.18.010109 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Digital Textbooks. What's new?
Rodríguez, J. R., Bruillard, É., & Horsley, M. (2014) · Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico eBooks · doi:10.15304/op377.759 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Tanner, H., & Jones, S. (2007) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/14759390701614454 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“ages 5–11 years) are able to think metacognitively or benefit from metacognitively based interventions as reflected abstraction is characteristic of formal operational thinking (Georghiades, 2004 ).”
BackgroundPrelude: Assessment for the 21st Century
Shute, V. J., & Becker, B. J. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6530-1_1 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The complexity of these problems and the huge quantities of available information require substantial learning and continuing education as well as the development of learning management capabilities over our lifetimes (Georghiades, 2004; Sungur, 2007).”
BackgroundSandi-Urena, G. S. (2008) · TigerPrints (Clemson University) · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Metacognition in Science Learning: Bibliometric Analysis of Last Two Decades
Wirzal, M. D. H., Halim, N. S. A., Nordin, N. A. H. M., & Bustam, M. A. (2022) · Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengkajian Ilmu Pendidikan e-Saintika · doi:10.36312/esaintika.v6i1.665 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“In the last two decades, five systematic review articles were found in the Scopus database, in which four systematic studies on metacognition explicitly linked to science learning in scientific journals and book chapters (Georghiades, 2004; Thomas, 2012; Veenman, 2012; Zohar & Barzilai, 2013) and one systematic study…”
BackgroundInfluentialPang, K. (2010) · Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC) · doi:10.19030/tlc.v7i4.112 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Based on these findings, it became apparent that metacognition should not be promoted to the detriment of subject matter development (Georghiades, 2004); but rather should be connected and intertwined in metacognitive-driven activity-based instruction.”
Metacognición, escritura y rendimiento académico en universitarios de Colombia y Francia
(Colombia), U. D. N., Campo, K., Escorcia, D., Moreno, M. M., de Poitiers, U., & Palacio, J. J. (2016) · Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana · doi:10.12804/apl34.2.2016.03 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Duman, B., & Semercı, Ç. (2019) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2019.070311 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Facilitating and supporting talk with pupils about metacognition: a research and learning tool
Wall, K., & Higgins, S. (2004) · Durham Research Online (Durham University) · doi:10.25405/ncl.34652232 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Willison, J., Draper, C., Fornarino, L., Li, M., Sabri, T., Shi, Y., & Zhao, X. (2023) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2023.2207147 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“This study implicates cognitive labelling for self-Awareness as the basis of higher levels of the AMERT framework, however metacognitive labelling by teachers as a strategy to foster self-Awareness is relatively uncommon (Georghiades, 2004).”
InfluentialRompayom, P., Tambunchong, C., Wongyounoi, S., & Dechsri, P. (2010) · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Heywood, D. (2007) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/03057640701705856 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…has been recognized for some time (see Flavell, 1976) and more recently, in a summary of the development of metacognition in learning to date Georghiades (2004), discusses the high status of ‘developing one’s self-knowledge and ability to ‘‘learn how to learn’’’, as a feature of learning…”
BackgroundSaçkes, M., & Trundle, K. C. (2016) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9522-1 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Riwayatiningsih, R., Setyarini, S., & Putra, R. A. A. (2021) · International Journal of Language Education · doi:10.26858/ijole.v5i1.13043 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“referring to information obtained from cognitive processes or anything relevant to them (Georghiades, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialDessie, E., Gebeyehu, D., & Eshetu, F. (2023) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/13273 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Pozas, M., Löffler, P., Schnotz, W., & Kauertz, A. (2020) · Open Education Studies · doi:10.1515/edu-2020-0118 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The relationship between metacognition (and its facets) with learning and problem-solving in general has been long researched (Georghiades, 2004; Schoenfeld, 1992; Swanson, 1990), documenting the implications of metacognition when working with authentic or real-life problem solving tasks (Mayer,…”
BackgroundEffective self‐regulating teams: a generative psychological approach
Millward, L. J., Banks, A. P., & Riga, K. (2010) · Team Performance Management · doi:10.1108/13527591011028924 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Terms like „reflexive‟ and „critical‟ thinking which now abound in the educational literature (e.g., Georghiades, 2004 for a review), have begun to permeate the performance literature (e.g., Hodgkinson & Sparrow, 2002; West, 1996; 2000).”
BackgroundEducational Complexity and Professional Development: Teachers’ Need for Metacognitive Awareness
Hughes, A. J. (2017) · Journal of Technology Education · doi:10.21061/jte.v29i1.a.2 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…ability to transfer learning from one context to another, and ability to adapt in a complex educational environment (Bransford et al., 2000; Ertmer & Newby, 1996; Georghiades, 2004; Gourgey, 1998; Hartman, 2001; Kramarski & Michalsky, 2009; Lin et al., 2005; Pucheu, 2008; Wilson & Bai, 2010).”
BackgroundMethodPreparing to Teach with Flipped Classroom in Teacher Preparation Programs
Ray, B. B., & Powell, A. (2013) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4987-3.ch001 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Brief, embedded, spontaneous metacognitive talk indicates thinking like a physicist
Sayre, E. C., & Irving, P. W. (2015) · Physical Review Special Topics - Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevstper.11.020121 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“[37,41,42]), but we are especially interested in how students actually do science away from education research laboratories.”
BackgroundPrior education of Open University students contributes to their capability in critical thinking
Repo, S., Lehtinen, T., Rusanen, E., & Hyytinen, H. (2017) · Journal of Adult and Continuing Education · doi:10.1177/1477971417693416 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Georghiades (2004) points out that after Flavell’s definition of the concept of metacognition has been described with different emphases, there always remains a division between awareness of oneself and an active, controlling component.”
BackgroundAssessing self-regulated learning in early childhood education: Difficulties, needs, and prospects.
de la Fuente, J., & Díaz, A. L. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Hoseini, F. S., & Khayyer, M. (2009) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Systemizing Entrepreneurial Metacognition: Thinking About the Past and Future
Bastian, B., Hjelle, M., & Shepherd, D. A. (2025) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1177/10422587251315664 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“First, metacognition is more of a higher-order construct than cognition (e.g. Akturk & Sahin, 2011; Flavell, 1979; Georghiades, 2004; Jacobs & Paris, 1987; Nelson, 1996; Schraw, 1994).”
Suciati, R., Gofur, A., Susilo, H., & Lestari, U. (2022) · Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction · doi:10.47750/pegegog.12.04.03 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The role of social media in shaping public opinion among Jordanian university students
AlKhudari, M. N., Abduljabbar, O. J., Almanaseer, A., & AL-Omari, M. S. (2024) · Journal of Infrastructure Policy and Development · doi:10.24294/jipd.v8i8.5489 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
- Authors
- Georghiades, P.
- Affiliations
- Ministry of Education and Culture (CY)
- Corresponding author
- Georghiades, Petros
- Venue
- International Journal of Science Education
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2004-02-27
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 365-383
- ISSN
- 0950-0693 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-5289
- OpenAlex
- W2090912502
- Cited by
- 303
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 15.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Science Education (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Keywords
- metacognition, metacognitive processes, metacognitive thinking, science education, elementary school students, thinking skills
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