From the general to the situated: three decades of metacognition

“Flavell (1979) viewed metacognition as learners’ knowledge of their own cognition, defining it as ‘knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena’ (p. 906).”

“The process of metacognition, or “thinking about one’s own thinking,” (Georghiades, 2004) allows more strategic learning and deeper conceptual understanding of content.”

“Self-reflection presupposes, in the language of mental models, a 'metamodel': in order to reason about how I reason, I need to access to a model of my reasoning performance’ (Von Wright, 1992) (p.61)(quoted in Georghiades, 2004).”

“We located four previous papers and book chapters offering an overview and discussing general trends of metacognition in science education (Georghiades, 2004a; Thomas, 2012; Veenman, 2012; White, 1998).”

“…students’ understanding and is a consideration of how their thinking influences their inquiries, actions, and learning as well as helping students develop their understanding of the scientific concepts, which in turn can lead to enhanced science literacy (Georghiades, 2004a, 2004b; Yore, 2000).”

“Studies have shown that improved metacognition helps individuals with management of time, focus, and effort [212], problem-solving [67], academic performance [45, 52, 106, 126, 180, 214], emotional well-being [200], and overall decision-making [206].”

“This raises many issues, not the least of which is that it is very difficult to measure metacognition in action (Georghiades 2004).”

“Yet, increasingly, research has shown that metacognitive expertise is needed in developing knowledge through inquiry (Frederiksen & White, 1997; Georghiades, 2004; Hogan, 1999; Kuhn & Pearsall, 1998; White & Frederiksen, 1998, 2000) and is critical in transferring ones’ capabilities for learning in…”

“It is most commonly used for tracking the development of children’s learning, as a diagnostic tool for evaluating progress, and to help them learn how to think about thinking i.e. aid in metacognition (Buzan and Buzan 1993; Georghiades 2000, 2004).”

“(2) In view of a constantly changing technological world when, not only is it impossible for individuals to acquire all existing knowledge, but it is also difficult to envisage what knowledge will be essential for the future ( Georghiades, 2004 ) The development of metacognitive abilities that will enable the student…”

“Type of instrument Because metacognition is not directly observable, measurement tends to involve either a mechanism for self-report or performance on a task (e.g. Akturk & Sahin, 2001; Georghiades 2004; Schraw and Moshman 1995; Veenman et al. 2005; Veenman et al. 2006).”

“It is not surprising then that over the past decades, interest in instructional enhancement of metacognition use has surged (Blank & Hewson, 2000; Davidowitz & Rollnick, 2003; Desoete, Roeyers, & De Clercq, 2003; Georghiades, 2004), including the use of specific strategies in chemistry (Francisco & Nicoll, 1998; Ricke…”

“Therefore, individuals should have skills to recognise, evaluate, and where needed, reconstruct their existing knowledge (Gunstone, 1991, cited in Georghidaes, 2004 ).”

“The effectiveness of the SWH is consistent with the principle that metacognition is important for learning through writing (Bangert-Drowns et al., 2004; Georghiades, 2004; Hand & Prain, 2002).”

“…argue that metacognition is a central feature in life-long learning in general, science education in particular, and that metacognitive engagement is key in developing deeper conceptual understanding of scientific ideas (e.g. Choi et al., 2011; Georghiades, 2004; Koch, 2001; Wang et al., 2014).”

“Metacognitive ability is closely related to learning outcomes (Thomas and McRobbie, 2001; Georghiades, 2004), in part, because it helps students to identify goals, organize elements of a problem, monitor progress toward a solution, recognize factors that adversely affect progress, and deal with obstacles (Coutinho et…”

“…1998; Desoete, Roeyers, & Buysse, 2001; Hurme, Palonen, & Järvelä, 2006; Mevarech & Fridkin, 2006; Panaoura & Philippou, 2007); in science (Georghiades, 2000, 2004; Hennessey, 1999; Larkin, 2006; Rickey & Stacy, 2000; Thomas, 2003); and in literacy (Perry, Nordby, & VandeKamp, 2003;…”

“In addition, because metacognition is an internal process that can elude awareness, it poses methodological challenges in research (Georghiades, 2004; Hacker, 1998).”

“Metacognition is the executive decision-making process which allows individuals to both undertake cognitive operations and oversee their progress (Georghiades, 2004).”

“Metacognition has been defined in various ways by different researchers (Jacobs & Paris, 1987; Flavell, 1976, 1979; Georghiades, 2004; Schraw, 1994; Swanson, 1990; Wenden, 1998).”

“Metacognition has subsequently developed as a key term in describing important or valuable features of learning (Georghiades, 2004 ), supporting transferable learning skills, developing awareness of the process of learning and self‐regulatory skills (Pintrich, 2000 ).”

“If metacognition is going to find its way into classrooms, policy-makers and leaders must find the means to make it so (Georghiades, 2004).”

“Following Efklides (2001, 2006, 2011), we refer to students' taskspecific appraisals of learning situations such as their perception of the difficulty and of their success in completing the task as metacognitive experiences (e.g. Georghiades, 2004 for a review).”

“Georghiades ( 2004 ) discusses the high status of “developing one’s self‐knowledge and ability to ‘learn how to learn’”, as a feature of learning, and raises the issue of inclusion of metacognition in the development of school curricular, as well as teacher education (Gunstone & Northfield, 1994 ; Paris & Winograd, 19…”

“There is an explicit limitation in the literature in the metrics used to assess metacognitive regulation and knowledge [25].”

“The findings indicate that prior to formal learning, most teachers are not familiar with knolwedge of metacognition in general and with the pedagogical knowledge pertaining to metacognitive instruction in particular (Georghiades, 2004; Ozturk, 2017; Seraphin & Philippoff, 2012; Zohar, 2006).”

“(Georghiades, 2004, p. 379) Given the scarcity of research examining metacognition in teaching practice, the primary aim of this study was to investigate whether the metacognition theory-practice gap extended to the teaching practice of academics in HE.”

“This is partly due to the varied definitions of metacognition and the number of conceivable dimensions encompassed by the term ( Georghiades 2004 ).”

“Metacognition has been subsequently given high status as a feature (Georghiades 2004), with characteristics of transferable learning skills, awareness of the process of learning and sustained benefit of metacognitive knowledge.”

“Metacognition refers to the human ability to reflect upon our own perceptions, thoughts, and actions (Valk et al., 2016; Sternberg, 2018); and is therefore, broadly defined as cognitions about cognitions, or thinking about one’s own thinking (Roberts and Erdos, 1993; Georghiades, 2004).”

“The findings confirm the findings of previous researchers [24, 26, 22] regarding a prevalent theory-practice gap in the area of teaching metacognition.”

“According to prior research on metacognition, successful learning often results from participation in the specific awareness and regulation of cognition (Azevedo, 2005; Georghiades, 2004; Hattie et al., 1996; Wang et al., 1990).”

“…metacognitive strategies are used to create a supportive classroom environment that will encourage the development of students’ metacognitive skills and enable them to take responsibility for their learning (Barın, 2016; Georghiades, 2004; Lin, 2001; Tian, 2016; Vula et al., 2017; Weaver, 2012).”

“knowledge but it is also difficult to foresee which knowledge will be essential for the future ( Georghiades, 2004 ).”

“Several studies have identified that chemistry students lack metacognitive use and awareness in laboratory classrooms (Georghiades, 2004; Haidar & Al Naqabi, 2008; Rickey & Stacy, 2000).”

“…that evaluate lifelong learning and/or self-directed learning, but these measure attitudes and beliefs towards learning, rather than actual behaviors or skills (Hoban et al. 2005; Hojat et al. 2009; Schraw & Dennison 1994), and how they relate to metacognitive skills is unclear (Georghiades 2004).”

“While these strategies appear to be useful, little research has examined them during complex decision-making contexts within SBT (Georghiades, 2004; Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996).”

“Students’ ability and capacity to express their metacognitive actions and processes showed their metacognitive awareness (Georghiades, 2004).”

“This definition has been employed in numerous studies investigating and conceptualizing metacognition in science education (e.g., Anderson, Nashon & Thomas 2009; Baird 1986; Georghiades 2004).”

“…to develop these cognitive functions: cognitive flexibility, 6 to 7-year olds (Davidson et al., 2006); planning, 7 to 10-year olds (Anderson et al., 2002; Matute et al., 2008) and metacognition, from 8 years old onwards (Georghiades, 2004; Roebers, Cimeli, Röthlisberger, & Neuenschwander, 2012).”

“In addition, it was understood that the discussions raised citizens' tolerance (42) and increased interest in social issues (22).”

“Metacognition and Metacognitive Awareness in Entrepreneurship Education Metacognition has been referred to as „thinking about one‟s own thinking‟ (Georghiades, 2004, p. 365).”

“ages 5–11 years) are able to think metacognitively or benefit from metacognitively based interventions as reflected abstraction is characteristic of formal operational thinking (Georghiades, 2004 ).”

“The complexity of these problems and the huge quantities of available information require substantial learning and continuing education as well as the development of learning management capabilities over our lifetimes (Georghiades, 2004; Sungur, 2007).”

“In the last two decades, five systematic review articles were found in the Scopus database, in which four systematic studies on metacognition explicitly linked to science learning in scientific journals and book chapters (Georghiades, 2004; Thomas, 2012; Veenman, 2012; Zohar & Barzilai, 2013) and one systematic study…”

“Based on these findings, it became apparent that metacognition should not be promoted to the detriment of subject matter development (Georghiades, 2004); but rather should be connected and intertwined in metacognitive-driven activity-based instruction.”

“This study implicates cognitive labelling for self-Awareness as the basis of higher levels of the AMERT framework, however metacognitive labelling by teachers as a strategy to foster self-Awareness is relatively uncommon (Georghiades, 2004).”

“…has been recognized for some time (see Flavell, 1976) and more recently, in a summary of the development of metacognition in learning to date Georghiades (2004), discusses the high status of ‘developing one’s self-knowledge and ability to ‘‘learn how to learn’’’, as a feature of learning…”

“referring to information obtained from cognitive processes or anything relevant to them (Georghiades, 2004).”

“The relationship between metacognition (and its facets) with learning and problem-solving in general has been long researched (Georghiades, 2004; Schoenfeld, 1992; Swanson, 1990), documenting the implications of metacognition when working with authentic or real-life problem solving tasks (Mayer,…”

“Terms like „reflexive‟ and „critical‟ thinking which now abound in the educational literature (e.g., Georghiades, 2004 for a review), have begun to permeate the performance literature (e.g., Hodgkinson & Sparrow, 2002; West, 1996; 2000).”

“…ability to transfer learning from one context to another, and ability to adapt in a complex educational environment (Bransford et al., 2000; Ertmer & Newby, 1996; Georghiades, 2004; Gourgey, 1998; Hartman, 2001; Kramarski & Michalsky, 2009; Lin et al., 2005; Pucheu, 2008; Wilson & Bai, 2010).”

“[37,41,42]), but we are especially interested in how students actually do science away from education research laboratories.”

“Georghiades (2004) points out that after Flavell’s definition of the concept of metacognition has been described with different emphases, there always remains a division between awareness of oneself and an active, controlling component.”

“First, metacognition is more of a higher-order construct than cognition (e.g. Akturk & Sahin, 2011; Flavell, 1979; Georghiades, 2004; Jacobs & Paris, 1987; Nelson, 1996; Schraw, 1994).”