The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 60 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
From the general to the situated: three decades of metacognition
Abstract
This paper discusses the notion of metacognition, which is usually defined as ‘cognitions about cognitions’, or ‘thinking about one's own thinking’. In so doing, it reviews the literature on metacognition over the past three decades, listing different definitions of the term and identifying diverse origins of processes metacognitive. Aspects of the nature of metacognition are discussed, highlighting some of its important yet problematic dimensions, and the potentially positive impact metacognition can have on the learning process is addressed. The paper also relates metacognition to the broader area of general thinking skills and discusses the appropriateness of practising metacognition with primary school children. The paper concludes with a synopsis of research in the outcomes of metacognition, in general, and in science education, in particular, highlighting recent interest in blending metacognitive thinking with science subject matter. Directions for research in science education with an interest in metacognition are also proposed.
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“Studies have shown that improved metacognition helps individuals with management of time, focus, and effort [212], problem-solving [67], academic performance [45,52,106,126,180,214], emotional well-being [200], and overall decision-making [206].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [67]
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Cites
Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
Flavell, J. H. (1979) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906 · Cited by 11,282 · cited 2×
“Flavell (1979) viewed metacognition as learners’ knowledge of their own cognition, defining it as ‘knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena’ (p. 906).”
BackgroundDewey, J. (1910) · D C Heath eBooks · doi:10.1037/10903-000 · Cited by 9,538
DEWEY, J. M. (1910) · Cited by 6,801
Ericsson (1993) · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.87.3.215 · Cited by 4,539
Metacognitive Aspects of Problem Solving
Flavell, J. H. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781032646527-16 · Cited by 2,809
Metamemory: A Theoretical Framework and New Findings
Nelson, T. O. (1990) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60053-5 · Cited by 2,583
The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget.
Flavell, J. H. (1963) · D Van Nostrand eBooks · doi:10.1037/11449-000 · Cited by 2,389
Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice
Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J. T., & Graesser, A. C. (1998) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410602350 · Cited by 2,138
Metacognition, Motivation, and Understanding
Weinert, F. E., & Kluwe, R. H. (2026) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003758167 · Cited by 1,369
Are Cognitive Skills Context-Bound?
PERKINS, D., & SALOMON, G. (1989) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x018001016 · Cited by 1,133
Research works printed but not linked: 21
- Borkowski JG, 1985, The Growth of Reflection, 105
- Brown AL, 1978, Children's Thinking: What Develops?, 3
- Campione JC, 1987, Metacognition, Motivation, and Understanding, 117
- Chmiliar L, 1997, AGATE, 11, 28
- Davidson JE, 1996, Metacognition, 207
- Flavell JH (1985) Cognitive Development 2nd edn. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall)
- Flavell JH, 1987, Metacognition, Motivation, and Understanding, 21
- Georghiades P (2001a) Dimensions of meta-‘Conceptual Change Learning’ in science education: the role of metacognition in the durability and contextual use of pupils' conceptions Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Roehampton, University of Surrey
- Georghiades P (2001b) ‘Situated metacognition’ and the ‘metacognitive instances’ approach: towards the integration of metacognitive thinking into school science Paper presented at the European Science Education Research Association Conference, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 21–25 August
- Georghiades P, 2002, Primary Science Review, 74, 24
- Georghiades P Parla-Petrou E (2001) Diverse use of concept mapping across two domains: The cases of primary food and science education Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Leeds, 13–15 September
- Gunstone RF, 1991, Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, 129
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- Haywood C, 1997, Special Children, 100, 24
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- Locke J (1924) In A. L. Pringle-Pattison (Ed.) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Oxford: Clarendon Press)
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development
Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2020) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2018.1537791 · Cited by 2,733
“The process of metacognition, or “thinking about one’s own thinking,” (Georghiades, 2004) allows more strategic learning and deeper conceptual understanding of content.”
BackgroundVisualization: A Metacognitive Skill in Science and Science Education
Gilbert, J. K. (2005) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-3613-2_2 · Cited by 443
“Self-reflection presupposes, in the language of mental models, a 'metamodel': in order to reason about how I reason, I need to access to a model of my reasoning performance’ (Von Wright, 1992) (p.61)(quoted in Georghiades, 2004).”
BackgroundA review of research on metacognition in science education: current and future directions
Zohar, A., & Barzilai, S. (2013) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2013.847261 · Cited by 436
“We located four previous papers and book chapters offering an overview and discussing general trends of metacognition in science education (Georghiades, 2004a; Thomas, 2012; Veenman, 2012; White, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialYore, L. D., & Treagust, D. F. (2005) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690500336973 · Cited by 366
“…students’ understanding and is a consideration of how their thinking influences their inquiries, actions, and learning as well as helping students develop their understanding of the scientific concepts, which in turn can lead to enhanced science literacy (Georghiades, 2004a, 2004b; Yore, 2000).”
BackgroundThe Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI
Tankelevitch, L., Kewenig, V., Simkute, A., Scott, A. E., Sarkar, A., Sellen, A., & Rintel, S. (2024) · Proceedings of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3613904.3642902 · Cited by 493
“Studies have shown that improved metacognition helps individuals with management of time, focus, and effort [212], problem-solving [67], academic performance [45, 52, 106, 126, 180, 214], emotional well-being [200], and overall decision-making [206].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Georghiades, P.
- Affiliations
- Ministry of Education and Culture (CY)
- Corresponding author
- Georghiades, Petros
- Venue
- International Journal of Science Education
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2004-02-27
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 365-383
- ISSN
- 0950-0693 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-5289
- OpenAlex
- W2090912502
- Cited by
- 303
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 15.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Science Education (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Keywords
- metacognition, metacognitive processes, metacognitive thinking, science education, elementary school students, thinking skills
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