Key updates in the clinical application of electroconvulsive therapy
Abstract
ECT is the oldest and most effective therapy available for the treatment of severe major depression. It is highly effective in individuals with treatment resistance and when a rapid response is required. However, ECT is associated with memory impairment that is the most concerning side-effect of the treatment, substantially contributing to the controversy and stigmatization surrounding this highly effective treatment. There is overwhelming evidence for the efficacy and safety of an acute course of ECT for the treatment of a severe major depressive episode, as reflected by the recent FDA advisory panel recommendation to reclassify ECT devices from Class III to the lower risk category Class II. However, its application for other indications remains controversial, despite strong evidence to the contrary. This article reviews the indication of ECT for major depression, as well as for other conditions, including catatonia, mania, and acute episodes of schizophrenia. This study also reviews the growing evidence supporting the use of maintenance ECT to prevent relapse after an acute successful course of treatment. Although ECT is administered uncommonly to patients under the age of 18, the evidence supporting its use is also reviewed in this patient population. Finally, memory loss associated with ECT and efforts at more effectively monitoring and reducing it are reviewed.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617 · Cited by 12,052 · see citing works
Rush, A. J., Trivedi, M. H., Wisniewski, S. R., Nierenberg, A. A., Stewart, J. W., Warden, D., Niederehe, G., Thase, M. E., Lavori, P. W., Lebowitz, B. D., et al. (2006) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.11.1905 · Cited by 5,643 · see citing works
(2003) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(03)12705-5 · Cited by 1,706 · see citing works
The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
Handoll, H. H. (2004) · The British Journal of Hand Therapy · doi:10.1177/175899830400900201 · Cited by 1,515 · see citing works
Discovering the Neural Basis of Human Social Anxiety: A Diagnostic and Therapeutic Imperative
Charney, D. S. (2004) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.1.1 · Cited by 1,428 · see citing works
Extending Indications for Long-Term Pharmacotherapy: Opportunities and Challenges
Kane, J. M. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.1.1 · Cited by 989 · see citing works
Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand
(2020) · Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand · doi:10.35755/jmedassocthai · Cited by 963 · see citing works
Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Schizophrenia Second Edition
(2007) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423363.45859 · Cited by 733 · see citing works
Semkovska, M., & McLoughlin, D. M. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.009 · Cited by 718 · see citing works
Sackeim, H. A., Haskett, R. F., Mulsant, B. H., Thase, M. E., Mann, J. J., Pettinati, H. M., Greenberg, R. M., Crowe, R. R., Cooper, T. B., & Prudic, J. (2001) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.285.10.1299 · Cited by 686 · see citing works
Hasan, A., Falkai, P., Wobrock, T., Lieberman, J. A., Glenthoj, B. Y., Gattaz, W. F., Thibaut, F., Möller, H., & the Wfsbp Task Force on Treatment Guidelines for Schizophrenia (2012) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622975.2012.696143 · Cited by 637 · see citing works
Patients' perspectives on electroconvulsive therapy: systematic review
Rose, D., Fleischmann, P., Wykes, T., Leese, M., & Bindman, J. (2003) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7403.1363 · Cited by 497 · see citing works
Kellner, C. H., Knapp, R. G., Petrides, G., Rummans, T. A., Husain, M. M., Rasmussen, K., Mueller, M., Bernstein, H. J., O’Connor, K., Smith, G., et al. (2006) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.12.1337 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
Grunze, H., Vieta, E., Goodwin, G. M., Bowden, C., Licht, R. W., Möller, H.-J., Kasper, S., & WFSBP Task Force On Treatment Guidelines For Bipolar Disorders (2010) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622970903555881 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Electroconvulsive therapy of acute manic episodes: a review of 50 years' experience
Mukherjee, S., Sackeïm, H. A., & Schnur, D. B. (1994) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.151.2.169 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Petrides, G., Malur, C., Braga, R. J., Bailine, S. H., Schooler, N. R., Malhotra, A. K., Kane, J. M., Sanghani, S. N., Goldberg, T. E., John, M., et al. (2014) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13060787 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
A Clinical Review of the Treatment of Catatonia
Sienaert, P. A., Dhossche, D. M., Vancampfort, D., Binder, M. D., & Gazdag, G. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00181 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
The Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy: Recommendations for Treatment, Training, and Privileging
Abrams, R. (1992) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199201000-00028 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Effects of Stimulus Parameters on Cognitive Side Effects
Weiner, R. D., ROGERS, H. J., Davidson, J. R. T., & Squire, L. R. (1986) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1986.tb51266.x · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Self-citationEffect of Concomitant Pharmacotherapy on Electroconvulsive Therapy Outcomes
Sackeïm, H. A., Dillingham, E. M., Prudic, J., Cooper, T. B., McCall, W. V., Rosenquist, P. B., Isenberg, K. E., Garcia, K. S., Mulsant, B. H., & Haskett, R. F. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.75 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
A Novel Strategy for Continuation ECT in Geriatric Depression: Phase 2 of the PRIDE Study
Kellner, C. H., Husain, M. M., Knapp, R. G., McCall, W. V., Petrides, G., Rudorfer, M. V., Young, R. C., Sampson, S. M., McClintock, S. M., Mueller, M., et al. (2016) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16010118 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Self-citationA meta-analysis of electroconvulsive therapy efficacy in depression
Kho, K. H., van Vreeswijk, M. F., Simpson, S., & Zwinderman, A. H. (2003) · The Journal of ECT · doi:10.1097/00124509-200309000-00005 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
The practice of electroconvulsive therapy: Recommendations for treatment, training, and privileging
Hay, D. P. (1991) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0163-8343(91)90111-9 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Electroconvulsive Treatment Compared With Lithium in the Management of Manic States
Small, J. G. (1988) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800320037004 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Practice Parameter for Use of Electroconvulsive Therapy With Adolescents
Ghaziuddin, N., Kutcher, S., & Knapp, P. (2004) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000142280.87429.68 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Imipramine with electrical treatment in depression—A controlled trial
Seager, C. P., & Bird, R. L. (1962) · Journal of Mental Science · doi:10.1192/bjp.108.456.704 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Lally, J., Tully, J., Robertson, D., Stubbs, B., Gaughran, F., & MacCabe, J. H. (2016) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2016.01.024 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Electroconvulsive therapy in catatonic patients: Efficacy and predictors of response
Luchini, F., Medda, P., Mariani, M. G., Mauri, M., Toni, C., & Perugi, G. (2015) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.v5.i2.182 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Continuation and Maintenance Electroconvulsive Therapy for Mood Disorders: Review of the Literature
Petrides, G., Tobias, K. G., Kellner, C. H., & Rudorfer, M. V. (2011) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000328943 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Perera, T. D., Luber, B. M., Nobler, M. S., Prudic, J., Anderson, C., & Sackeïm, H. A. (2004) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300377 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Continuation ECT in Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia
Chanpattana, W., Chakrabhand, M. L. S., Sackeïm, H. A., Kitaroonchai, W., Kongsakon, R., Techakasem, P., Buppanharun, W., Tuntirungsee, Y., & Kirdcharoen, N. (1999) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/00124509-199909000-00002 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Lauritzen, L., Odgaard, K., Clemmesen, L., Lunde, M., Öhrström, J. K., Black, C., & Bech, P. (1996) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1996.tb09856.x · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Krystal, A. D., Weiner, R. D., Dean, M. D., Lindahl, V. H., Tramontozzi, L. A., Falcone, G., & Coffey, C. E. (2003) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/jnp.15.1.27 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationSemkovska, M., & McLoughlin, D. M. (2013) · The Journal of ECT · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e318279c2c9 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Pharmacological Strategies in the Prevention of Relapse After Electroconvulsive Therapy
Prudic, J., Haskett, R. F., McCall, W. V., Isenberg, K. E., Cooper, T. B., Rosenquist, P. B., Mulsant, B. H., & Sackeïm, H. A. (2013) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e31826ea8c4 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
THE AMERICAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Mendel, L. B. (1907) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.26.674.765 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Combined Chlorpromazine and Electroconvulsive Therapy in Mania
Sikdar, S., Kulhara, P., Avasthi, A., & Singh, H. (1994) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.164.6.806 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Nordenskjöld, A., von Knorring, L., Ljung, T., Carlborg, A., Brus, O., & Engström, I. (2013) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e318276591f · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Maintenance ECT in intractable manic-depressive disorders.
Vanelle, J. M., Lôo, H., Galinowski, A., de Carvalho, W., Bourdel, M., Brochier, P., Bouvet, O., Brochier, T., & Olié, J. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Verwijk, E., Comijs, H. C., Kok, R., Spaans, H., Tielkes, C. E. M., Scherder, E., & Stek, M. L. (2013) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610213001932 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Using ECT in schizophrenia: A review from a clinical perspective
Zervas, I. M., Theleritis, C. G., & Soldatos, C. R. (2011) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622975.2011.564653 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Novel insights into the rehabilitation of memory post acquired brain injury: a systematic review
Spreij, L. A., Visser‐Meily, J. M. A., Heugten, C. M. V., & Nijboer, T. C. W. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00993 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Augmentation Strategies in Electroconvulsive Therapy
Loo, C. K. A., Simpson, B., & MacPherson, R. (2010) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e3181e48143 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Smith, G. E., Rasmussen, K. G., Cullum, C. M., Felmlee‐Devine, M. D., Petrides, G., Rummans, T. A., Husain, M. M., Mueller, M., Bernstein, H. J., Knapp, R. G., et al. (2010) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.08m04797gre · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Fernie, G., Bennett, D., Currie, J., Perrin, J. S., & Reid, I. (2014) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291714000658 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Medda, P., Toni, C., Luchini, F., Mariani, M. G., Mauri, M., & Perugi, G. (2015) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/bdi.12348 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Electroconvulsive therapy and cognitive functions in treatment-resistant depression
Bodnar, A., Krzywotulski, M., Lewandowska, A., Chłopocka-Woźniak, M., Bartkowska‐Śniatkowska, A., Michalak, M., & RYBAKOWSKI, J. K. (2015) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622975.2015.1091501 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Response rate of catatonia to electroconvulsive therapy and its clinical correlates
Raveendranathan, D., Narayanaswamy, J. C., & Reddi, V. S. K. (2011) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-011-0285-4 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Evaluation of cumulative cognitive deficits from electroconvulsive therapy
Kirov, G., Owen, L., Ballard, H., Leighton, A., Hannigan, K., Llewellyn, D., Escott‐Price, V., & Atkins, M. (2016) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.158261 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Task Force on Treatment Guidelines for Bipolar Disorders
Grunze, H., Kasper, S. F., Goodwin, G. W., Bowden, C. L., Baldwin, D., Licht, R. W., Vieta, E., & Möller, H.-J. (2002) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Pharmacological Attenuation of Electroconvulsive Therapy-Induced Cognitive Deficits
Pigot, M., Andrade, C., & Loo, C. K. A. (2008) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e3181616c14 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Effectiveness of Maintenance Electroconvulsive Therapy in Rapid-Cycling Bipolar Disorder
Minnai, G. P., Salis, P., Oppo, R., Loche, A. P., Scano, F., & Tondo, L. (2010) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e3181dbf797 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
DeVivo, D. C. (1975) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.1975.00490530077008 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Unilateral ECT in the Treatment of Manic Episodes.
Mukherjee, S., Sackeïm, H. A., & Lee, C. (1988) · PubMed · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Chen, S. T. (2011) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e31821072d2 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Abdollahi, M. H., Izadi, A., Hajiesmaeili, M., et al. (2011) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e31822a6b8e · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Expanded Safety and Efficacy Data for a New Method of Performing Electroconvulsive Therapy
Sahlem, G. L., Short, E. B., Kerns, S., Snipes, J. M., DeVries, W. H., Fox, J. B., Burns, C. A., Schmidt, M., Nahas, Z. H., George, M. S., et al. (2016) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000328 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Electroconvulsive Therapy in Children and Adolescents
(2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780199937899.001.0001 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Lévy-Rueff, M., Gourévitch, R., Löo, H., Olié, J., & Amado, I. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.10.012 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Deng, Z., Lisanby, S. H., & Peterchev, A. V. (2013) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.10.1097/yct.0b013e3182a4b4a7 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Status Epilepticus following ECT in a Patient Receiving Theophylline
Devanand, D. P., Decina, P., Sackeïm, H. A., & Prudic, J. (1988) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/00004714-198804000-00027 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
THE EFFECT OF CELLULAR HYDRATION ON EXPERIMENTAL ELECTROSHOCK CONVULSIONS
Swinyard, E. A., Toman, J. E. P., & Goodman, L. S. (1946) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1946.9.1.47 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Dybedal, G. S., Tanum, L., Sundet, K. S., & Bjølseth, T. M. (2015) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2015.1050457 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Evidence-based practice recommendations for memory rehabilitation.
Piras, F., Borella, E., Incoccia, C., & Carlesimo, G. A. (2011) · PubMed · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Lévy-Rueff, M., Jurgens, A., Lôo, H., et al. (2008) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2007.08.008 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
1.—Nardil (Phenelzine) As a Potentiator of Electroconvulsive Therapy (E.C.T.)
Müller, D. C. (1961) · Journal of Mental Science · doi:10.1192/bjp.107.451.994 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Flumazenil Pretreatment in Benzodiazepine-Free Patients
Yi, J. J., Torres, J., Azner, Y., et al. (2012) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e3182507752 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Tsaltas, E., Kalogerakou, S., Papakosta, V.-M., Kontis, D., Theochari, E., Koutroumpi, M., Anyfandi, E., Michopoulos, I., Poulopoulou, C., Papadimitriou, G. N., et al. (2010) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291710001443 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Weiner, R. D., Lisanby, S. H., Husain, M. M., et al. (2013) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.12cs08260 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationKalogerakou, S., Oulis, P., Anyfandi, E., Konstantakopoulos, G., Papakosta, V.-M., Kontis, D., Theochari, E., Angelopoulos, E. K., Zervas, I. M., Mellon, R. C., et al. (2015) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000238 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Choi, J., Lisanby, S. H., Medalia, A. A., & Prudic, J. (2011) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e31821d3ab3 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Patients’ Perspectives on Electroconvulsive Therapy
Bergsholm, P. (2012) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e31822d796c · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Radman, T., & Lisanby, S. H. (2017) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/09540261.2017.1304898 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Chanpattana, W., Ml, C., Kirdcharoen, N., et al. (1999) · PubMed · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Impact of an Oral Theophylline Loading Dose Pre-Electroconvulsive Therapy
Kemp, M. F., Allard, J., Pâquet, M., et al. (2014) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000154 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Continuation Electroconvulsive Therapy to Prevent Relapse of Schizophrenia in Relapse-Prone Patients
Suzuki, K., Takano, T., Ebina, Y., et al. (2007) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e3180544972 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Hyperventilation and Seizure Quality
Scott, A. I. F. (2014) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000162 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
THE EFFECT OF DEHYDRATION ON THE SEIZURE THRESHOLD AND ELECTROLYTE CONTENT OF BRAIN IN RATS
Silberstein, P. T. (1967) · Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.1967.tb01701.x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
(2015) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000259 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Malhi, G. S., Bell, E., Bassett, D., Boyce, P., Bryant, R., Hazell, P., Hopwood, M., Lyndon, B., Mulder, R., Porter, R., et al. (2021) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867420979353 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Use of Electroconvulsive Therapy
Thirthalli, J., Sinha, P., & Sreeraj, V. S. (2023) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_491_22 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Electroconvulsive Therapy in Geriatric Psychiatry
Meyer, J. P., Swetter, S. K., & Kellner, C. H. (2018) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2017.10.007 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Ramasubramanian, V., Mathumathi, S., Rajendhiran, G., Bijulakshmi, P., & Kannan, M. (2022) · Industrial Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_217_20 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Lin, C. ‐., Yang, W. ‐., Chen, C. ‐., & Cai, W. ‐. (2020) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13183 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
New Somatic Treatments for Child and Adolescent Depression
Cullen, K. R., Padilla, L. E., Papke, V. N., & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2019) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-019-00194-8 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Weiner, R. D., & Reti, I. M.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Weiner, Richard D.
- Venue
- International Review of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2017-03-04
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 54-62
- ISSN
- 0954-0261 (ISSN-L)
- 1369-1627
- OpenAlex
- W2606929611
- Cited by
- 166
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 6
- FWCI
- 2.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Review of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Electroconvulsive Therapy Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
- Keywords
- electroconvulsive therapy, major depressive disorder, treatment-resistant depression, memory impairment, catatonia, mania, acute schizophrenia, maintenance electroconvulsive therapy, relapse prevention, ECT indications
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Bipolar Disorder, Catatonia, Depressive Disorder, Major, Major Depressive Disorder, Electroconvulsive Therapy, Humans, Memory Disorders, Schizophrenia
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
