Violence and illegal deforestation: The crimes of “environmental militias” in the Amazon forest
Abstract
This article presents a conceptual definition of the “environmental militias,” which are criminal networks responsible for the rampant increase of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. We demonstrate how they combine violence and technology to reinforce the economic interests of agribusiness, illegal mining and logging sectors, providing all the logistic chain that interconnects such illegal activities and the global market. We argue that since the election of Jair Bolsonaro “environmental militias” have not only been supported by the president’s discourse, but also by federal institutions and government programs negatively impacting the Brazilian environmental legislation, reducing monitoring, control and surveillance of environmental assets and the power of institutions responsible for demarcating Indigenous Lands. This article demonstrates the struggle of the Brazilian federal government against scientific data related to deforestation and the increase in human caused fires in the Amazon region. Environmental concern based on scientific criteria has been redefined as “leftist ideology” and the government replaced specialized technicians by military members with no expertise in environmental monitoring or oversight institutions. Finally, we critically analyze market discourses on sustainability by understanding them as corporative reputational strategies rather than effective commitment with the preservation of the Amazon Forest.
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Over two million Brazilians have been relocated to the Amazon through land reform programs since the 1970s.
“Over two million Brazilians have been relocated to the Amazon through land reform programs since the 1970s, to rural settlements that harbor as much as one-third of all deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon and where 70% of the cleared areas are used for cattle ranching (Souza et al., 2022).”
From Beyond the “supply chain” framing: Cattle ranching as a vanishing mediator of deforestation and dispossession in the Brazilian and Colombian Amazon (2026) · cites this paper as Souza et al., 2022
Rural settlements in the Brazilian Amazon harbor as much as one-third of all deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.
“Over two million Brazilians have been relocated to the Amazon through land reform programs since the 1970s, to rural settlements that harbor as much as one-third of all deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon and where 70% of the cleared areas are used for cattle ranching (Souza et al., 2022).”
From Beyond the “supply chain” framing: Cattle ranching as a vanishing mediator of deforestation and dispossession in the Brazilian and Colombian Amazon (2026) · cites this paper as Souza et al., 2022
The reliance on armed groups hired as militias against community leaders or environmental defenders is commonplace.
“The reliance on armed groups hired as militias against community leaders or environmental defenders is commonplace (Souza et al., 2022).”
From Beyond the “supply chain” framing: Cattle ranching as a vanishing mediator of deforestation and dispossession in the Brazilian and Colombian Amazon (2026) · cites this paper as Souza et al., 2022
In rural settlements in the Brazilian Amazon, 70% of the cleared areas are used for cattle ranching.
“Over two million Brazilians have been relocated to the Amazon through land reform programs since the 1970s, to rural settlements that harbor as much as one-third of all deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon and where 70% of the cleared areas are used for cattle ranching (Souza et al., 2022).”
From Beyond the “supply chain” framing: Cattle ranching as a vanishing mediator of deforestation and dispossession in the Brazilian and Colombian Amazon (2026) · cites this paper as Souza et al., 2022
Environmental violations in the Brazilian Amazon are increasingly linked to transnational criminal networks.
“Meanwhile, recent years have seen ever more violence perpetrated by gangs and private militias as the Brazilian Amazon becomes a growing hub for cocaine refining and distribution (Intersecção, 2025), with environmental violations increasingly linked to transnational criminal networks (Souza et al., 2022;Waisbich, 2025).”
From Beyond the “supply chain” framing: Cattle ranching as a vanishing mediator of deforestation and dispossession in the Brazilian and Colombian Amazon (2026) · cites this paper as Souza et al., 2022
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Sorted by citations
Bastos Lima, M. G., & López, J. (2026) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2026.107532
- Authors
- Souza, L. E. V. D., Fetz, M., Zagatto, B. P., & Pinho, N. S.
- Affiliations
- Universidade Federal da Bahia (BR)
- Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (BR)
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (BE)
- Corresponding author
- Souza, Luiz Enrique Vieira de
- Venue
- Capitalism Nature Socialism
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2021-11-12
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 5-25
- ISSN
- 1045-5752 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-3290
- OpenAlex
- W3212599987
- Cited by
- 34
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 1.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Capitalism Nature Socialism (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime, Illicit Activities, and Governance
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Extractivism and Socioeconomic Issues
- Keywords
- illegal deforestation, Amazon rainforest, violence, criminal networks, agribusiness, illegal mining, illegal logging, Jair Bolsonaro, environmental law, indigenous land demarcation, environmental monitoring, forest fires, sustainability discourse, corporate reputation
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