The role of parental emotional validation and invalidation on children’s clinical symptoms: A study with children exposed to intimate partner violence
Abstract
Parental emotional validation has been proposed of as a major explanatory mechanism of the association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and children’s psychological problems. The present study examined the effect of parental emotional validation and invalidation on the relationship between exposure to IPV, and both post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptoms. Sample was composed of Portuguese children exposed to IPV and an age- and gender-matched control group. Structural equation modeling was conducted. Children who were exposed to IPV presented higher scores on PTSD (p < .001, d = .99) and depression symptoms (p < .01, d = .63), and paternal (p < .05, d = .67) and maternal (p < .01, d = .81) emotional invalidation. Children who were exposed to IPV presented lower scores on paternal emotional validation (p < .001, d = 1.23). Exposure to IPV directly predicts both PTSD and depression symptoms but the indirect effect was stronger. Paternal emotional validation moderated the impact of exposure to IPV on clinical symptoms; the relationship between exposure to IPV and both PTSD and depression symptoms was mediated by maternal emotional invalidation. Findings suggest the potential usefulness of parental emotional validation and invalidation as treatment goals in clinical intervention with this population. Interventions to improve the therapist-patient alliance recommend that therapists use emotional validation. Training of emotional validation skills in parenting training may prevent the deleterious effects of exposure to IPV.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Parental involvement in therapy improves treatment outcomes for children and adolescents with PTSD.
“These studies collectively showcase the positive impacts of integrating parental involvement into therapy for children and adolescents with PTSD, highlighting its potential to enhance the efficacy of psychotherapeutic interventions.”
From Clinical Efficacy of Psychotherapeutic Interventions for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Analysis. (2024) · cites this paper as [50]
Cites
Missing data: our view of the state of the art
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.2.147 · Cited by 11,638 · see citing works
Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder
Cary, G. L. (1994) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1994.48.1.155 · Cited by 6,300 · see citing works
A comparison of inclusive and restrictive strategies in modern missing data procedures.
Collins, L. M., Schafer, J. L., & Kam, C.-M. (2001) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.6.4.330 · Cited by 2,389 · see citing works
Latent Curve Models: A Structural Equation Perspective
Horan, P. M. (2006) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610603500650 · Cited by 1,214 · see citing works
The Child PTSD Symptom Scale: A Preliminary Examination of its Psychometric Properties
Foa, E. B., Johnson, K. M., Feeny, N. C., & Treadwell, K. R. H. (2001) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3003_9 · Cited by 1,103 · see citing works
Vu, N. L., Jouriles, E. N., McDonald, R., & Rosenfield, D. (2016) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.003 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Graham-Bermann, S. A., Gruber, G., Howell, K. H., & Girz, L. (2009) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.01.002 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Emotion socialization and child conduct problems: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis
Johnson, A. M., Hawes, D. J., Eisenberg, N., Kohlhoff, J. R., & Dudeney, J. E. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.04.001 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Behavioral problems among children whose mothers are abused by an intimate partner
Kernic, M. A., Wolf, M. E., Holt, V. L., McKnight, B., Huebner, C. E., & Rivara, F. P. (2003) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2002.12.001 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Intimate partner violence victimization and parenting: A systematic review.
Chiesa, A. E., Kallechey, L., Harlaar, N., Rashaan Ford, C., Garrido, E. F., Betts, W. R., & Maguire, S. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.028 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Nathanson, A. M., Shorey, R. C., Tirone, V., & Rhatigan, D. L. (2012) · Partner Abuse · doi:10.1891/1946-6560.3.1.59 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Behavioral observations of parenting in battered women.
Levendosky, A. A., & Graham‐Bermann, S. A. (2000) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037//0893-3200.14.1.80 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Young Children's Adjustment as a Function of Maltreatment, Shame, and Anger
Bennett, D. S., Sullivan, M. W., & Lewis, M. (2005) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559505278619 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Behavioral observations of parenting in battered women.
Levendosky, A. A., & Graham‐Bermann, S. A. (2000) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.14.1.80 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Becker, K. D., Stuewig, J. B., & McCloskey, L. A. (2009) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260509354578 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Greene, C. A., Chan, G., McCarthy, K. J., Wakschlag, L. S., & Briggs‐Gowan, M. J. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.012 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Processes Underlying Depression: Risk Aversion, Emotional Schemas, and Psychological Flexibility
Leahy, R. L., Tirch, D. D., & Melwani, P. S. (2012) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2012.5.4.362 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Westphal, M., Leahy, R., Pala, A., & Wupperman, P. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.05.040 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Tajima, E. A., Herrenkohl, T. I., Moylan, C. A., & Derr, A. S. (2010) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00676.x · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Grasso, D. J., Henry, D. B., Kestler, J., Nieto, R., Wakschlag, L. S., & Briggs‐Gowan, M. J. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515572472 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Narayan, A. J., Englund, M. M., & Egeland, B. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457941300031x · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Manning, L. G., Davies, P. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12279 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Beyond Deficits: Intimate Partner Violence, Maternal Parenting, and Child Behavior Over Time
Greeson, M. R., Kennedy, A. C., Bybee, D. I., Beeble, M. L., Adams, A. E., & Sullivan, C. M. (2014) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-014-9658-y · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The Role of Maternal Emotional Validation and Invalidation on Children's Emotional Awareness
Lambie, & Lindberg (2016) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.62.2.0129 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Miller‐Graff, L. E., Cater, Å. K., Howell, K. H., & Graham‐Bermann, S. A. (2015) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2015.1028030 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Sturge‐Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Fittoria, M. G. (2014) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579414000509 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Georgsson, A., & Almqvist, K. (2013) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1359104513503352 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Fostering Validating Responses in Families
Fruzzetti, A. E., & Shenk, C. (2008) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1300/j200v06n01_17 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Olaya, B., Ezpeleta, L., de la Osa, N., Granero, R., & Doménech, J. M. (2010) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.03.028 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Kerig, P. K., & Swanson, J. A. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12058-005 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Easterbrooks, M. A., Katz, R. C., Kotake, C., Stelmach, N. P., & Chaudhuri, J. H. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515614562 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Cater, Å. K. (2007) · Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention · doi:10.1080/14043850701289538 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Lamela, D. J. P. D. V., Jongenelen, I., Pinto, R. J., & Levendosky, A. A. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.04.020 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Emotional Schema Therapy: Distinctive Features
Leahy, R. L. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203711095 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Loucks, L. A., & Shaffer, A. (2014) · Couple and Family Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/cfp0000023 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Pernebo, K., Fridell, M., & Almqvist, K. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.02.014 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Desenvolvimento de um Questionário de Experiências de (In) Validação Emocional na Família
Dinis, A., & Pinto‐Gouveia, J. (2011) · Psychologica · doi:10.14195/1647-8606_54_6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Zhai, C., Wibowo, S., & Li, L. D. (2024) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-024-00316-7 · Cited by 1,567 · see citing works
“This over-reliance could lead to a range of issues, including diminished critical thinking (Iskender, 2023), analytical thinking (Ferrajão, 2020), and decision-making abilities (Pokkakillath & Suleri, 2023) susceptibility to AI-generated errors or AI hallucinations (Hatem et al., 2023), increased…”
BackgroundDevelopmental Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence on Children
Bogat, G. A., Levendosky, A. A., & Cochran, K. A. (2023) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072720-013634 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Gkintoni, E., Kourkoutas, E., Yotsidi, V., Stavrou, P. D., & Prinianaki, D. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11050579 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Flujas-Contreras, J. M., García-Palacios, A., & Gómez, I. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19095014 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Parental response to their children’s behavior based on emotional acceptance and validation positively affects emotion regulation and reactivity [37], whereas responses such as invalidation can favor the development of psychological problems in their children [38].”
BackgroundGkintoni, E., Κουρκούτας, Η., Prinianaki, D., Yotsidi, V., & Stavrou, P. D. (2024) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202401.0893.v1 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The mental health of children exposed to intimate partner violence: A systematic literature review
Asiedu, E., & Baliki, A. V. A. (2025) · Developmental Child Welfare · doi:10.1177/25161032251324862 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Qian, P., & Xie, X.-Z. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2526580 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This over-reliance could lead to several issues, including diminished critical thinking (Iskender, 2023), analytical thinking (Ferraj ~ ao, 2020), and reduced decision-making (Pokkakillath & Suleri, 2023) abilities and susceptibility to AI-generated errors or AI hallucinations (Brender, 2023).”
Rezaei, M., Paripishbar, Z., & Khazaei, S. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105673 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Cheung, C. T. Y., Cheng, C. M.-H., Lee, V. W. P., Lam, S. K. K., He, L., Ling, H. W.-H., Lee, K., Ross, C. A., & Fung, H. W. (2023) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2023.2233095 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“A recent study showed that paternal emotional validation moderated the relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) and post-JOURNAL traumatic and depressive symptoms in children (Ferrajão, 2020).”
BackgroundFlujas-Contreras, J. M., García‐Palacios, A., Castilla, D., & Gómez, I. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05052-8 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Flujas-Contreras, J. M. (2021) · Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes · doi:10.21134/rpcna.2021.08.3.6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Por el contrario, las respuestas invalidantes de los padres a las reacciones emocionales de los hijos pueden favorecer el desarrollo de problemas psicológicos en los niños (Ferrajão, 2020).”
BackgroundGuo, L., Ye, B., Li, B., & Liu, X.-Z. (2024) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/00302228231225994 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…with family members include family members ’ lack of interest and ability in problem-solving (Quiñones et al., 2015), emotional invalidation (Ferrajão, 2020), poor parent-child attachment and suicide history of the family would also increase the risk of suicidal ideation and mental…”
Body image resources for parents of youth: a scoping review
Vani, M. F., Mansoor, A., Christopoulos, E., Xu, F., Meadows, L., Ricketts, C., & Sabiston, C. M. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Given evidence that parental emotion validation is related to greater adolescent disclosure of distressing experiences (Martin et al., 2018) and lower depressive symptoms (Ferrajão, 2020), parent resources would benefit from more explicitly incorporating validation-based recommendations.”
Agrawal, A., Chukkali, S., Mukherjee, O., & Krishnamurthy, V. (2025) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2025.2501148
- Authors
- Ferrajão, P. C.
- Affiliations
- Universidade Europeia (PT)
- Corresponding author
- Ferrajão, Paulo Correia
- Venue
- Journal of Family Trauma, Child Custody & Child Development
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2020-01-02
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 4-20
- ISSN
- 2690-4586 (ISSN-L)
- 2690-4594
- OpenAlex
- W3014608324
- Cited by
- 14
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 0.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Family Trauma Child Custody & Child Development (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- intimate partner violence, children exposed to domestic violence, post-traumatic stress disorder, depressive symptoms, parent training, child psychological problems
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
