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General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes
Open accessAbstract
Introduction Most youth do not meet national nutrition recommendations and overconsume high-calorie, low nutrient-dense foods. Adequate nutritional intake is crucial for growth and development. Nutrition practices play a key role in sports performance and recovery. Nutritional knowledge can affect eating patterns. However, there is limited research on general and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes.Purpose To examine general and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes.Methods Adolescent athletes were assessed on nutrition knowledge and general and sport-specific nutrition behaviors, including food group consumption, hydration practices, and sport supplement use. Gender differences in general and sport-specific nutrition behaviors were compared using a Mann-Whitney U test. Odds ratios and logistic regression, controlling for age, ethnicity, and years in sport participation were used to determine differences in correct responses between genders. Significance was set at the p < 0.05 level.Results One hundred and ninety-four athletes (n = 63 male, n = 132 female, mean age = 14.9 ± 1.63 years) were assessed. Differences in nutrition behaviors were found in fruit, dairy, and sugary beverage consumption between genders. Male athletes were more likely to monitor hydration and use sports supplements. Both males and females scored less than 50% on both general and sport-specific knowledge questions.Conclusion Adolescent athletes report lower than recommended food group consumption and lack knowledge of general and sport-specific nutrition information. Improvements in these areas can play a significant role in the health and performance of adolescent athletes.
Overview
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TL;DR
This cross-sectional survey of 194 adolescent athletes found low general and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and suboptimal dietary behaviors, with several gender differences in food, hydration, and supplement practices. Both males and females scored below 50% on general and sport-specific nutrition knowledge questions.
Key findings
- In 194 athletes (n = 63 male; results report n = 131 female, abstract n = 132 female; mean age = 14.9 ± 1.63 years), females consumed more fruit (1.50 ± 1.00 vs. 1.15 ± 0.95 times/day; p = 0.04), while males reported higher dairy (3.70 ± 1.91 vs. 2.35 ± 1.91; p < 0.001), sugary beverage (1.12 ± 1.19 vs. 0.76 ± 1.09; p = 0.004), and Unhealthy Food Index scores (8.63 ± 5.48 vs. 6.20 ± 3.53; p = 0.002).
- Male athletes were more likely to monitor hydration (p = 0.02) and use sport supplements (p < 0.001); female athletes reported higher vitamin/mineral supplement use (p = 0.01). Post-competition meal consumption was higher in females but only trending (p = 0.07).
- Both sexes scored less than 50% on general and sport-specific nutrition knowledge questions. Females were more likely to correctly identify USDA MyPlate food groups (76.8% vs. 61.4%; p = 0.03; adjusted OR 2.27, 95% CI 1.12–4.59) and saturated fats as inflammation/recovery-delaying (54.4% vs. 36.8%; p = 0.03; adjusted OR 2.15, 95% CI 1.11–4.18).
- Males were more likely to correctly identify the percentage of daily calories from protein (66.7% vs. 45.6%; p = 0.01; adjusted OR 0.39, 95% CI 0.20–0.78) and that most athlete carbohydrates should be complex (59.6% vs. 39.2%; p = 0.01; adjusted OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.24–0.89). More females than males correctly identified simple carbohydrates (14.4% vs. 1.8%; p = 0.01), but this relationship disappeared after adjustment.
Methods
- Baseline cross-sectional survey of adolescent athletes recruited through the Peak Health and Performance program from Michigan, Arizona, and California; Michigan participants from 2016–2019 and Arizona/California participants from 2021–2023; 194 completed baseline.
- Dietary behaviors used a subset of the School Physical Activity and Nutrition (SPAN) survey, with Healthy Food Index and Unhealthy Food Index; knowledge used a 20-item general/sport-specific nutrition knowledge subset; sport-specific behaviors used seven 5-point Likert items.
- Analyses: t-tests/chi-squares for descriptive comparisons; Mann-Whitney U for ordinal nutrition behaviors; chi-square and logistic regression controlling for age, ethnicity, and years in sport participation; significance p < 0.05; SPSS version 28.
Limitations
- The paper states: a convenience sample from Michigan, Texas, and California may not be generalizable (methods instead say Arizona, an evident discrepancy); self-reported behaviors may not reflect actual dietary intake; dietary screener validity is supported; food access/availability was not measured.
- Evident: the cross-sectional baseline design cannot establish causality; gender imbalance (63 males vs. 131/132 females) and males were significantly older (15.4 ± 1.25 vs. 14.6 ± 1.74 years; p < 0.001); the female n and state list are inconsistently reported across abstract, methods, and limitations.
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“Further, male athletes reported higher use of sport supplements, while females reported higher use of vitamin and mineral supplements.”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results > General and sports-specific nutrition behaviors
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on 2 assumptions not shown here.
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In the paper
“whereas male athletes reported significantly higher dairy consumption (Male: 3.70 ± 1.91 times per day; Female: 2.35 ± 1.91 times per day; p < 0.001) and sugary beverage consumption (Male: 1.12 ± 1.19 times per day; Female: 0.76 ± 1.09 times per day; p = 0.004) as compared to female athletes.”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results > General and sports-specific nutrition behaviors
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In the paper
“This relationship disappeared after controlling for age, ethnicity, and years in sport.”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results > Sports nutrition knowledge
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“There were no other significant differences in the percentage of correct sports nutrition questions by sex.”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results > Sports nutrition knowledge
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“whereas male athletes reported significantly higher dairy consumption (Male: 3.70 ± 1.91 times per day; Female: 2.35 ± 1.91 times per day; p < 0.001) and sugary beverage consumption (Male: 1.12 ± 1.19 times per day; Female: 0.76 ± 1.09 times per day; p = 0.004) as compared to female athletes.”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results > General and sports-specific nutrition behaviors
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Rests on 2 assumptions not shown here.
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Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Despite the growing demands of sport, research consistently shows that adolescent athletes often possess limited nutrition knowledge, which can lead to inadequate dietary intake, suboptimal fueling, and increased risk of nutrient deficiencies [97].”
From Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies (2025) · cites this paper as [97]
In the citing paper
“Nevertheless, consistently low SNK levels have been reported among female athletes from different sports disciplines (8, 12–17).”
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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
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Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results > Sports nutrition knowledge
“| The vitamin and mineral needs of athletes are best met by:. Answer: Eating a balanced diet | 96 | 76.8 | 138 | 75.8 | .65 | 1.24 | .58, 2.63 |”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results
“A total of 194 athletes (n = 63 males; n = 131 females) completed baseline measurements.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“| 8–10 years | 20 | 20 | 15.9 | 15.9 | 30 | 30 | 22.9 | 22.9 | |”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results
Reported 15.9 · recomputed 31.746032
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“| 0–2 years | 2 | 2 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 11 | 11 | 8.4 | 8.4 | | | 3–5 years | 7 | 7 | 11.1 | 11.1 | 23 | 23 | 17.6 | 17.6 | | | 6–8 years | 12 | 12 | 19.0 | 19.0 | 24 | 24 | 18.3 | 18.3 | | | 8–10 years | 20 | 20 | 15.9 | 15.9 | 30 | 30 | 22.9 | 22.9 | | | 10+ years | 32 | 32 | 50.8 | 50.8 | 43 | 43 | 32.8 | 32.8 | |”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Results
Reported 63 · recomputed 73
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Materials and methods > Participants
“Participants consisted of adolescent athletes from Michigan, Arizona, and California who were originally recruited to participate in the Peak Health and Performance (PHP) program [25].”
§ General and sport-specific nutrition knowledge and behaviors of adolescent athletes > Discussion > Limitations
“First, the study includes a convenience sample of adolescent athletes from Michigan, Texas, and California and may not be generalizable to all adolescent athletes participating in youth sports.”
Citations
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Cited by
Everett, S. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17172792 · Cited by 37
Muslichah, R., Styles, S. E., Matkin-Hussey, P. A., Love, T. D., & Black, K. E. (2026) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuag032 · Cited by 2
Veloso-Pulgar, M., & Farran-Codina, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2026.1821345 · Cited by 1
Hernández, A. Q., Pablos, A., & Drehmer, E. (2026) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2026.1767162 · Cited by 1
BOZDAĞ, A. N. S., Canbolat, E., Duman, E., & İnan, C. M. (2026) · BMC Sports Science Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s13102-026-01929-w · Cited by 1
Thongsawang, S., Lersanekwattana, T., & Chorcharoenying, S. (2025) · International journal of human movement and sports sciences · doi:10.13189/saj.2025.130601
Layouni, S., Ksibi, S., Ach, T., Elmtaoua, S., Ceylan, H. İ., Ghali, H., Tiss, B., Ajili, M. A., Jemni, S., Muntean, R. I., et al. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17223598
The Impact of Nutritional Education on Hemoglobin Levels in Adolescent Cross-Country Runners
Hardy, P. L. (2026) · Scholars Crossing (Liberty University)
Yao, Y., & Zhu, L. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18121924
Investigation of Nutrition Knowledge and Eating Behaviors of Sports High School Students
Kurt, H. İ., & Civil, T. (2026) · IJPANH · doi:10.71350/ijpanh.41
FARKLI BRANŞLARDAKİ ADÖLESAN KADIN SPORCULARIN BESLENME DURUMLARININ DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ
Kendir, D., ÖNEN, D., & Karabudak, E. (2026) · Ankara Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.33689/spormetre.1799821
REVISIÓN BIBLIOGRÁFICA: ACTIVIDAD FÍSICA Y NUTRICIÓN EN ATLETAS DE 16 A 18 AÑOS DE CHIMBORAZO
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Lagua-Saquinga, E. L., Poveda-Morales, T. C., & Estrada-Velasco, L. J. (2026) · CIENCIAMATRIA · doi:10.35381/cm.v12i4.3042
Ağagündüz, D., Şahin, T. Ö., Erbay, C., Yıldız, M., & Akman, O. (2026) · Spor Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.25307/jssr.1960136
Metadata
- Authors
- Gibbs, R. L., & Becker, T. B.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gibbs, Ronald L.
- Venue
- Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2025-03-10
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 2477060-2477060
- ISSN
- 1550-2783 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11894754
- OpenAlex
- W4408289242
- Cited by
- 17
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 3
- FWCI
- 8.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Michigan State University
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Social Sciences › Life-span and Life-course Studies › Recreational Sport and Physical Activity
- Keywords
- youth athletes, nutrition knowledge, nutrition behavior, hydration practices, food group intake, gender differences, sugar-sweetened beverage consumption, athletic performance
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Dairy Products, Diet, Feeding Behavior, Female, Fruit, Humans, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Male, Sex Factors, Dietary Supplements, Athletes, Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
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