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How WEIRD are positive psychology interventions? A bibliometric analysis of randomized controlled trials on the science of well-being
Open accessAbstract
The past two decades have witnessed a rapid rise in well-being research, and a profusion of empirical studies on positive psychology interventions (PPIs). This bibliometric analysis quantifies the extent to which rigorous research on PPIs that employ randomized controlled trials (RCTs) reaches beyond Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic (WEIRD) populations. A search was conducted through databases including PubMed, PsycINFO, and Scopus for studies from 1998 to 2017. In total, we found 187 full-text articles that included 188 RCTs from 24 countries. We found that RCTs on the efficacy of PPIs are still predominately conducted in western countries, which accounted for 78.2% of the studies. All these countries are highly industrialized and democratic, and study populations are often highly educated and have a high income. However, there has been a strong and steady increase in publications from non-Western countries since 2012, indicating a trend towards globalization of positive psychology research.
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“Firstly, it is expected that majority of participants will be mothers, limiting the generalizability of conclusions to fathers.”
From Effectiveness of a positive psychology and mindfulness-based app on mental health for parents of children with a neurodevelopmental disorder: study protocol of a pragmatic international randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [41]
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“Indeed, some research has found that Western-derived interventions for psychological problems can conflict with norms of nonWestern populations. 70-72”
From Randomized Controlled Trials of Mindfulness and Acceptance-Based Interventions Over the Past Two Decades: A Bibliometric Analysis. (2021) · cites this paper as [71]
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Citations
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Self-citationOptimal Well-Being After Psychopathology: Prevalence and Correlates
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Yaaqeib, S. I., Lambert, L., Hadjisolomou, S. P., Fazari, M. K. A., Selim, H. A., & Haque, A. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0268027 · Cited by 8
“This further becomes an imperative in light of the fact that work over the years has revealed much psychological research suffers from bias; namely, it is Western in nature with treatments, measures, as well as understandings of wellbeing itself influenced by WEIRD (Western, Educated, Individualist, Rich and Democrati…”
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“While TPB has been successful in explaining behaviour in Asian high-income countries like Taiwan (Hung et al., 2019), its effectiveness may be limited in LMICs (Hendricks & Moghaddam, 2020; Hendriks et al., 2019).”
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“Even though positive psychology was first established in the year 2000 (Csikszentmihalyi & Selig-man, 2000), non-western research on positive psychology interventions accelerated only after 2014 and now makes up one-third of all studies (Hendriks et al., 2019).”
Does the good life feel good? The role of positive emotion in competing conceptions of the good life
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Self-citationScoping Review of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder in Iran
Twohig, M. P., Seydavi, M., Capel, L. K., Levin, M. E., & Akbari, M. (2024) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcp-2023-0009 · Cited by 7
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“2% were conducted in “weird” countries where highly educated and high income communities are a norm.(16) I invite researchers to consider the American Journal of Health Promotion a professional venue awaiting with an open mind and open arms for studies that are less weird and more representative of the challenges of t…”
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van Zyl, L. E., & Dik, B. J. (2025) · International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology · doi:10.1007/s41042-025-00232-2 · Cited by 5
“Critics have characterized positive psychology as a decontextualized, Western-centric, and potentially neo-liberal ideology that tends to emphasize individual effort while downplaying the importance of situational, cultural and systemic factors (Hendriks et al., 2019; Lomas et al., 2021).”
Datu, J. A. D., Fincham, F. D., & Buenconsejo, J. U. (2022) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2076562 · Cited by 5
“25 Examining pursuit of happiness in various cultures is important because there tends to be greater cultural variations in positive emotions than negative ones.”
BackgroundInfluentialCulture and Happiness: An Interdependent Approach
Uchida, Y., & Rappleye, J. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-26260-9_4 · Cited by 5
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Existential wellbeing may be of utmost importance to many people
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“However, it is encouraging to observe a steady growth of PPI research in non-Western countries (Hendriks et al., 2019), including the UAE (Lambert et al., 2016, 2019).”
Mapping Well-Being Science: A Bibliometric Review of Its Evolution, Structure, and Future DirectionsPreprint
Rombaoa, J. P., & Heshmati, S. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/cr4x3 · Cited by 5
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“This finding is not surprising as a previous meta-analytic review (Hendriks et al., 2019) indicated that happiness-increasing interventions were mostly carried out in Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) societies.”
A Delphi consensus study on the dimensions of positive mental health
Iasiello, M. P., van Agteren, J. E., Ali, K., Kolovos, E., Batterham, P. J., Goodman, F. R., Jarden, A., Kashdan, T. B., Kyrios, M., Oades, L. G., et al. (2026) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-026-00617-5 · Cited by 5
“One respondent noted, “the concepts seem very much related to a Western concept of wellbeing,” echoing critiques of WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) bias in psychological research 36 .”
From theory to practice: a participatory HR-led training programme for employee wellbeing
Shekhar, A., Saurombe, M. D., & Joseph, R. M. (2025) · Frontiers in Organizational Psychology · doi:10.3389/forgp.2025.1624518 · Cited by 9
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“…discipline of positive psychology and employ identifiable, evidence-based pathways, which typically include three elements: an explicit promotion of positive emotion, cognition, and/or behavior (Fava et al., 2005; Hendriks et al., 2019; Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, 2006).”
Hendriks, T., Hassankhan, A., de Jong, J. T. V. M., & van Woerkom, M. (2024) · Mental Health & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.mhp.2024.200366 · Cited by 6
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“Prior evidence has indicated that PPIs may be particularly effective in non-Western settings (Hendriks et al., 2018) and the field of positive psychology has repeatedly called for research on PPIs in non-WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) contexts, but with limited…”
InfluentialZhang, Y., Iob, E., & Tapia‐Muñoz, T. (2025) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2025.101000 · Cited by 3
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“…particu - larly the United States and European nations, with limited research on PYD programs in Asia, Africa, and other regions, resulting in a limited understanding of adolescent development across different cultural contexts (Chen et al., 2024a , b, c ; Hendriks et al., 2019; Shek & Dou, 2024).”
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Measurement Invariance of the Adult Hope Scale across Race/Ethnicity and Gender
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“…in positive psychology literature such as the Philippines, Malaysia, and Ghana can help address pressing concern on the dominance of well-being scientific studies in non-WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialised, rich, and democratic; Henrich et al., 2010) cultural contexts (Hendriks et al., 2019).”
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“Yet, as highlighted in Hendriks et al.’s (2019) review, most of the randomized controlled trial studies examining the effects of PPIs were based on Western countries (88”
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“These biases apply to wellbeing specifically (Hendriks et al., 2019), even if the picture may now be gradually changing as scholars increasingly appreciate the need to conduct more cross-cultural and global research (Lomas, 2022).”
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Wong, W. P., Pheh, K. S., & Tan, C. (2024) · Makara Human Behavior Studies in Asia · doi:10.7454/hubs.asia.1140424 · Cited by 2
A Bibliometric Lens on the Future: How AI continues to transform education institutions
Easouh, F. Y. J., Oweis, T. I., & Makahleh, H. A. (2024) · Human Systems Management · doi:10.1177/01672533241305172 · Cited by 5
Hope, Mindfulness, PTSD, and Well-Being Among Trauma-Exposed Black Adults
Murphy, E. R., Brooks, J. R., & Gallagher, M. W. (2025) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-025-00864-w · Cited by 2
“…that culture and cultural determinants of health matter in the experience of happiness and the risk and trajectories of mental ailments, it is insufficient to settle for the current knowledge that exists based on primarily WEIRD samples (Hendriks et al., 2018; Layous et al., 2013; Uchida, 2004 ).”
Gang, H., Anderson, M. H., & Summers, J. K. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113121 · Cited by 4
Geographic Inequality in Management Scholarship: Data-driven Estimates and Trends
Nagaraj, A., & Yao, H. (2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s0733-558x20250000093004 · Cited by 2
Beyond Us: Building Collective Wellbeing
Lambert, L., Warren, M. A., Waldrop, R. J., Alsubaiei, S., Eubanks, A., & Fisher, J. L. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-18329-4_3 · Cited by 3
Self-citationMehrollahi, T., Nor, M. M., Danaee, M., & Trenaman, B. (2019) · Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews · doi:10.18510/hssr.2019.7538 · Cited by 2
“Many scholars and academic associations agree that thus far, research in the fields of psychology and related social sciences has been western-centric (Hendriks et al., 2018).”
BackgroundDiscussion: Broadening the Scope of Wellbeing Science
Kemp, A. H., & Edwards, D. J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-18329-4_11 · Cited by 2
Sample representativeness in psychological and brain science research
Liu, W., Chen, Z., & Hu, C.-P. (2024) · Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version) · doi:10.1360/tb-2024-0322 · Cited by 6
Positive Psychology Programs for Youth in Diverse Communities
Gillham, J. E., Leventhal, K. S., Rashid, T., Anjum, A., & Leventhal, S. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20311-5_9 · Cited by 2
Lomas, T., Koga, H. K., Padgett, R. N., Pawelski, J. O., Kim, E. S., Makridis, C. A., Gundersen, C., Bradshaw, M., Pertel, N. L., Shiba, K., et al. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4783710/v1 · Cited by 2
Burger, M., & Pang, N. T. P. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1661988 · Cited by 2
Interfaces entre as psicoterapias comportamentais e a cultura
Passos, J. A. F., Weydmann, G. J., Motta, P. A. C., & Dias, A. C. G. (2023) · Perspectivas em Análise do Comportamento · doi:10.18761/vecc21112022 · Cited by 2
Multiculturalidade e interseccionalidade nas terapias comportamentais contextuais
Furini, L. G., Henzel, G. A., Müller, S. A. Á. S., & Passos, J. A. F. (2023) · Perspectivas em Análise do Comportamento · doi:10.18761/vecc291122 · Cited by 3
Future Horizons in Positive Psychology: Challenges and Prospects
Kumkaria, B., Tiwari, H., & Sharma, O. P. (2024) · International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews · doi:10.55248/gengpi.5.0524.1340 · Cited by 1
Zhang, S., Wong-Mersereau, C., Orchanian‐Cheff, A., Makki, M., Gandhi, S., Fritsch, K., Bhat, M., & Berkhout, S. (2024) · Journal of Liver Transplantation · doi:10.1016/j.liver.2024.100233 · Cited by 1
Gorzelitz, J. (2024) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2024_489 · Cited by 1
Hernández, R., Chen, J., Kwon, S., Martinez, L., Martínez, Á., Alemañy, G. M., Romero, D., Addington, E. L., Huffman, J. C., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2025) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-024-00854-4 · Cited by 1
“The focus has been on “WEIRD” populations, characterized as White, educated, indus-trialized, rich, and democratic (Hendriks et al., 2019), which greatly limits cross-cultural generalizability.”
Mikušková, E. B., Kohút, M., Havan, P., & Adamus, M. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672251327607 · Cited by 1
“…beliefs are supported, where there is a crisis of trust (Hajdu et al., 2023), and which does not meet all the criteria for WEIRD countries (Beyebach et al., 2021; Hendriks et al., 2019)—our study is not sufficient to say that the 4-CTSQ (and 4-CTSQ-B) could be a culturally unbiased instrument.”
Al-Thani, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1549846 · Cited by 1
Farewell, C. V., Schmiege, S. J., & Leiferman, J. A. (2025) · Maternal Health Neonatology and Perinatology · doi:10.1186/s40748-025-00213-y · Cited by 2
“…and/or social resources focus on offering support without pathologizing [33]; activities may enhance positive thoughts, promote social supports, and be less stigma-tizing compared to traditional psychological supports [33, 49], which may be more appealing to minoritized individuals [33, 39].”
Cultural Examination of the Self-Compassion Scale in South Korean Community-Based Adults
Suh, H., Kim, S., Aum, T., & Lee, D. (2025) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/00110000251376653 · Cited by 1
“Strikingly, 78.2% of positive psychology studies have been conducted on Western samples (Hendriks et al., 2019).”
InfluentialLomas, T., Mehanna, J.-G., Diego‐Rosell, P., Cowden, R. G., Passmore, H., Zelenski, J. M., Steger, M. F., Muthukrishna, M., & Snower, D. J. (2025) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2025.2578848 · Cited by 1
“One plausible explanation for both issues may lie in the Western-centric nature of wellbeing scholarship (Hendriks et al., 2019), and relatedly the attitudes and relationships towards nature prevalent in Western cultures.”
School Adjustment Moderates Character Strengths Interventions in Korean Elementary Schools
Kim, B. K., & Shin, J. (2025) · International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology · doi:10.1007/s41042-025-00263-9 · Cited by 1
“In this way, the study contributes culturally grounded evidence to the literature largely dominated by WEIRD samples (Hendriks et al., 2019 ).”
A scoping review of kindness measurement tools
Shillington, K. J., Yates, J., & Johnson, A. M. (2026) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113616 · Cited by 1
Mkumbuzi, N. S., Jiya, E., Chisati, E. M., Kemp, J. L., Barton, C., & Ezzat, A. M. (2026) · Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy · doi:10.2519/jospt.2026.13317 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Hendriks, T., Warren, M. A., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Hassankhan, A., Graafsma, T., Bohlmeijer, E., & de Jong, J.
- Affiliations
- Anton de Kom University of Suriname (SR)
- Western Washington University (US)
- University of Twente (NL)
- Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Corresponding author
- Hendriks, Tom
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Journal of Positive Psychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2018-08-29
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 489-501
- ISSN
- 1743-9760 (ISSN-L)
- 1743-9779
- OpenAlex
- W2889446527
- Cited by
- 280
- References
- 99
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 11
- FWCI
- 20.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- research.utwente.nl
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- The Journal of Positive Psychology (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Keywords
- positive psychology interventions, WEIRD populations, research generalizability, cross-cultural research, randomized controlled trials, well-being, globalization of science, publication trends
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