Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: a practice-friendly meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Do positive psychology interventions-that is, treatment methods or intentional activities aimed at cultivating positive feelings, positive behaviors, or positive cognitions-enhance well-being and ameliorate depressive symptoms? A meta-analysis of 51 such interventions with 4,266 individuals was conducted to address this question and to provide practical guidance to clinicians. The results revealed that positive psychology interventions do indeed significantly enhance well-being (mean r=.29) and decrease depressive symptoms (mean r=.31). In addition, several factors were found to impact the effectiveness of positive psychology interventions, including the depression status, self-selection, and age of participants, as well as the format and duration of the interventions. Accordingly, clinicians should be encouraged to incorporate positive psychology techniques into their clinical work, particularly for treating clients who are depressed, relatively older, or highly motivated to improve. Our findings also suggest that clinicians would do well to deliver positive psychology interventions as individual (versus group) therapy and for relatively longer periods of time.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This meta-analysis of 51 positive psychology interventions with 4,266 participants found that such interventions significantly improved well-being and reduced depressive symptoms. Effects were medium-sized and moderated by participant and intervention features, supporting clinical use especially for depressed, older, self-selected clients and individual, longer formats.
Key findings
- Across 49 well-being studies (4,235 participants), the mean effect size was r = .29 (median .24; range −.31 to .84; 96% positive), significant in fixed- and random-effects models; the fail-safe N was 2,519 versus a tolerance level of 255.
- Across 25 depression studies (1,812 participants), the mean effect size was r = .31 (median .26; range −.28 to .81; 80% favoring the intervention), significant in both models; the fail-safe N was 420 versus a tolerance level of 135.
- Moderators: depressed status and self-selection predicted greater benefit in fixed-effects analyses only; older age predicted greater benefit in both models; individual therapy outperformed group and self-administered formats in both models; longer duration predicted greater well-being gains in fixed effects (random-effects p = .09) but not depression; comparison group type moderated well-being in fixed effects only.
- A binomial effect size display indicated that in a hypothetical group of 200, 65 intervention recipients versus 35 controls would improve well-being, and 66 versus 34 would reduce depression.
Methods
- Meta-analysis of English-language positive psychology intervention studies from 1977–2008. Inclusion required an intervention aimed at increasing positive feelings, behaviors, or cognitions; pre- and post-intervention well-being or depression measures; a comparison group; and effect-size information. Physical health/physical activity and mood-induction studies were excluded.
- Coded moderators included depression status, age, self-selection, intervention format, duration, and comparison group type. Effect sizes were computed as r from d, F, t, p, or descriptive statistics; multiple measures were averaged via Fisher Z transformations.
- Analyses used fixed- and random-effects models, Stouffer-combined significance tests, one-sample t-tests on mean Fisher Z effects, fail-safe N and tolerance estimates, chi-square heterogeneity tests, and contrast/correlation tests for moderators.
Limitations
- The authors state that the meta-analysis is not exhaustive and that moderator findings cannot be interpreted causally because studies were not randomly assigned to moderator levels. They also note likely file-drawer bias for well-being, though the fail-safe N exceeded the tolerance level.
- Evident from the text: the review is limited to English-language studies from 1977–2008 and samples adjacent literatures (e.g., mindfulness, life review, forgiveness), which may restrict generalizability. Fixed- and random-effects models disagreed for some moderators (depression status, self-selection, and comparison group type for well-being), and older adults could not be analyzed for depression because too few studies were available.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 9 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
For depression, intervention duration did not have a significant moderating effect based on both fixed and random effects models.
“For depression, however, the moderating effect of intervention duration was not significant based on both the fixed effects and random effects models.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Self-selected individuals were more likely to experience greater gains in well-being and depression than non-self-selected individuals, based on the fixed effects model.
“Individuals who elected to participate in a PPI-perhaps expecting that the intervention would make them happier or less depressed-were more likely to experience greater gains in WB and depression compared with their non-self-selected counterparts, based on the fixed effects model.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Positive psychology interventions significantly decrease depressive symptoms compared with comparison groups, with a mean r of .31 across 25 studies and 1,812 participants.
“The results revealed that positive psychology interventions do indeed significantly enhance well-being (mean r 5 .29)and decrease depressive symptoms (mean r 5 .31).”
- Also stated in: § Depression · boosted
“The unweighted mean r of .31 was close to the median r (.26) and was highly significant based on both the fixed effects (one-tailed p 5 2 Â 10 À12 ) and the random effects (one-tailed p 5 .0001)models.”
- Also stated in: § Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression? · boosted
“The combined results of 49 studies revealed that PPIs do, in fact, significantly enhance WB, and the combined results of 25 studies showed that PPIs are also effective for treating depressive symptoms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Depression · boosted
- Findingown data
Among age groups other than older adults, decreases in depression increased as a linear function of age.
“Although there were not enough studies to include the ''older adult'' group in the moderator analysis for depression, the other age groups nevertheless showed larger decreases in depression as a linear function of age.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Depressed individuals benefited more from positive psychology interventions than nondepressed individuals, according to the fixed effects moderator analysis.
“Depressed individuals benefited more from PPIs than nondepressed individuals, according to the fixed effects moderator analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
Comparison group type did not have a moderating effect on shifts in depression based on both fixed and random effects models.
“The type of comparison group did not have a moderating effect on shifts in depression, based on both the fixed effects and the random effects models.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
Causal conclusions cannot be drawn regarding the moderators because the studies were not randomly assigned to particular moderator levels.
“In addition, causal conclusions cannot be drawn regarding the moderators because the studies were not randomly assigned to particular moderator levels (Rosenthal, 1991b, p. 81).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rosenthal, 1991b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Several studies have found that exerting high levels of effort to practice a happiness-boosting strategy, and continuing to practice it after the intervention, results in greater improvements in well-being and depression.
“Several studies have found that exerting high levels of effort to practice a happiness-boosting strategy, and continuing to practice it even after the intervention is over, results in greater improvements in WB and depression (e.g., Lyubomirsky et al., 2008;Seligman et al., 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Lyubomirsky et al., 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Seligman et al., 2005 source
- Interpretationreasoning
Participation in positive psychology interventions may be more effective for relieving depression than participation in a no-treatment control group, placebo activity, or treatment as usual.
“This indicates that participation in PPIs may be more effective for relieving depression than participation in a no-treatment control group, placebo activity, or treatment as usual.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
For depression, the file drawer problem was unlikely to threaten the significant results, given that the fail-safe N of 420 exceeded the tolerance level of 135.
“The file drawer problem was unlikely to threaten the significant results, given that the fail-safe N was 420, which exceeded the tolerance level of 135.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of unpublished studies is not five times greater than the number of published studies.
- Premisecitation
Members of individualist cultures have been found to benefit more from positive psychology interventions than members of collectivist cultures.
“Members of individualist cultures, whose values and cultural prescriptives are highly supportive of the pursuit of individual happiness, have been found to benefit more from PPIs than members of collectivist cultures (Lyubomirsky et al., 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyubomirsky et al., 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
A 'shotgun' approach, in which individuals practice multiple positive psychology intervention activities, may be more effective than engaging in only one activity.
“It also appears that a ''shotgun'' approach, in which individuals practice multiple PPI activities, may be more effective than engaging in only one activity (e.g., Fordyce 1977Fordyce , 1983;;Seligman et al., 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationown data
Positive psychology interventions may be more effective than standard treatments for boosting well-being.
“Positive interventions that were compared with ''treatment as usual'' showed the second greatest benefit, suggesting that PPIs may be more effective than standard treatments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 1
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIntervention format had a significant moderating effect on the effectiveness of positive psychology interventions, with the mean r greatest for individual therapy, followed by group-administered, then self-administered interventions, based on both fixed and random effects models.
“Intervention format had a significant moderating effect on the effectiveness of PPIs, based on both the fixed effects and the random effects models.Specifically, the mean r effect size was greatest for individual therapy, followed by group-administered PPIs, then self-administered PPIs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataThe set of effect sizes for depression was heterogeneous, indicating that moderators may account for the variation in effect sizes.
“Moreover, as in the case of well-being, the set of effect sizes was heterogeneous”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataStudies comparing a positive psychology intervention to a no-treatment control showed the greatest boost in well-being; treatment as usual showed the second greatest benefit; and positive psychology interventions also produced greater boosts in well-being than neutral control and placebo activities.
“In particular, studies that compared a PPI to a notreatment control group showed the greatest boost in WB.Positive interventions that were compared with ''treatment as usual'' showed the second greatest benefit, suggesting that PPIs may be more effective than standard treatments.Finally, PPIs also produced greater boosts in WB compared with neutral control and placebo activities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataComparison group type moderated gains in well-being based on the fixed effects analysis but not when computed using the random effects analysis.
“The fixed effects analysis revealed that the type of comparison group used in a PPI moderated the gains in WB but not when computed using the random effects analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataLonger interventions produced greater gains in well-being based on the fixed effects model, with the random effects effect approaching significance (one-tailed p = .09).
“Longer interventions produced greater gains in WB based on the fixed effects model, and this effect approached significance according to the random effects model (one-tailed p 5 .09).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe set of effect sizes for well-being was heterogeneous, suggesting the presence of moderator variables.
“Furthermore, the set of effect sizes was heterogeneous (w 2 ð48Þ ¼ 230:92, one-tailed p 5 9 Â 10 À26 ), suggesting the presence of moderator variables.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe benefits of positive psychology interventions increase with age, based on both fixed and random effects models.
“Both the fixed effects and random effects models revealed that the benefits of PPIs increase with age.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataPositive psychology interventions significantly enhance well-being compared with comparison groups, with a mean r of .29 across 49 studies and 4,235 participants.
“The results revealed that positive psychology interventions do indeed significantly enhance well-being (mean r 5 .29)and decrease depressive symptoms (mean r 5 .31).”
- Also stated in: § Well-Being · plain
“The unweighted mean r (.29) was close in magnitude to the median r (.24) and was highly significant based on both the fixed effects (one-tailed p 5 0) and the random effects (one-tailed p 5 4 Â 10 À9 ) models.”
- Also stated in: § Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression? · boosted
“The combined results of 49 studies revealed that PPIs do, in fact, significantly enhance WB, and the combined results of 25 studies showed that PPIs are also effective for treating depressive symptoms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Well-Being · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThis meta-analysis is not comprehensive; it does not include all positive psychology intervention studies ever conducted.
“Please bear in mind that these findings should be interpreted cautiously, as this meta-analysis is not comprehensive (i.e., does not include all PPI studies ever conducted).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPositive psychology interventions can be especially effective for treating residual symptoms and preventing future relapse for formerly depressed clients.
“PPIs can be especially effective for treating residual symptoms (Fava et al., 1998) and preventing future relapse for formerly depressed clients (Seligman et al., 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIn a hypothetical group of 200 individuals, 65 positive psychology intervention-treated individuals would experience gains in well-being versus 35 controls, and 66 treated individuals would experience decreased depression versus 34 controls.
“In a hypothetical group of 200 individuals-half the group treated with a PPI, and half the group untreated-65 individuals treated with a PPI would experience gains in WB, compared with only 35 of the individuals in the control group.Similarly, 66 PPI-treated individuals would experience decreased depression, relative to only 34 individuals in the control group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe magnitude of positive psychology intervention effects is medium-sized, with mean r = .29 for well-being and mean r = .31 for depression.
“The magnitude of these effects is medium-sized (mean r 5 .29 for WB, mean r 5 .31for depression), indicating that not only do PPIs work, they work well.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The number of unpublished studies is not five times greater than the number of published studies.
“The tolerance level was also computed to estimate the number of irretrievable studies that possibly exist, based on the assumption that the number of unpublished studies is not five times greater than the number of published ones (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008, p. 689).”
The paper relies on this without support.
No systematic quantitative review of positive psychology intervention research had been published before this meta-analysis.
“The general effectiveness of PPIs remains unclear, as no systematic quantitative review of the research has yet been published.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Sin and Lyubomirsky's (2009) meta-analysis lacked clarity in the inclusion criteria.
“The lack of clarity in the inclusion criteria constitutes a third limitation.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
The Literature Search section explicitly lists four inclusion criteria and specifies exclusions for physical-activity interventions and mood-induction studies. Rather than identifying unclear inclusion criteria as a limitation, the source sets out the criteria it used. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSin and Lyubomirsky's (2009) meta-analysis found that positive psychology interventions help reduce depressive symptom levels in clinical populations (r = 0.31, Cohen's d = 0.65).
“Their results show that PPIs can indeed be effective in enhancing well-being (r = 0.29, standardized mean difference Cohen’s d = 0.61) and help to reduce depressive symptom levels in clinical populations (r = 0.31, Cohen’s d = 0.65).”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
The Depression section reports that PPIs reduced depressive symptoms across 25 studies, with a mean effect of r = .31. The Participant Moderators section distinguishes depressed from nondepressed participants, so .31 is not an estimate specifically for clinical populations. The paper reports the effect as r, not as Cohen’s d = .65. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMindfulness practice enhances empathy, self-compassion, wellbeing, positive emotions, emotional self-regulation, and cognitive flexibility.
“The practice of mindfulness has been found to enhance various qualities including empathy and self-compassion (Birnie et al., 2009), wellbeing and positive emotions (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), emotional self-regulation and cognitive flexibility, and reduce stress and anxiety (Hölzel et al., 2011;Meiklejohn et al., 2012).”
From The influence of teacher-guided mindfulness practice on inter and intra-personal abilities among Israeli Arab students (2024) · cites this paper as Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009
The Clinical Practices section says that practicing emotional skills, including mindfulness, can positively affect psychological well-being. The paper describes positive affect as a component of well-being, but the passages do not separately establish that mindfulness enhances positive emotions. In the citing sentence, the other qualities are attributed to different sources, not Sin and Lyubomirsky. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSeveral meta-analyses have shown that positive psychology interventions targeting feelings of gratitude, savoring of experiences and sensations, and hope and meaning lead to improved well-being and reduced depressive and anxiety symptoms in both general populations and those considered vulnerable.
“Several meta-analyses have shown that positive psychology interventions targeting feelings of gratitude, savoring of experiences and sensations, and hope and meaning lead to improved well-being and reduced depressive and anxiety symptoms in both general populations and those considered vulnerable [73-75].”
From Optimization of a Transdiagnostic Mobile Emotion Regulation Intervention for University Students: Protocol for a Microrandomized Trial (2023) · cites this paper as [75]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMeta-analytic reviews show positive psychological interventions can have robust effects on increasing well-being and decrease associated depressive symptoms.
“Meta-analytic reviews of positive psychological interventions designed to cultivate well-being have demonstrated that these interventions can not only have robust effects on increasing well-being, they can also decrease associated depressive symptoms (Sin & Lyubmirksy, 2009).”
From Trajectories of change in well-being during cognitive behavioral therapies for anxiety disorders: Quantifying the impact and covariation with improvements in anxiety (2020) · cites this paper as Sin & Lyubmirksy, 2009
Sin and Lyubomirsky's (2009) meta-analysis included intervention studies related to positive psychology but not strictly developed within the positive psychology framework (e.g., mindfulness, life-review).
“Intervention studies, although related to positive psychology but not strictly developed within this new framework (e.g. mindfulness, life-review) were included in the meta-analysis.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
Sin and Lyubomirsky's (2009) meta-analysis found that positive psychology interventions can be effective in enhancing well-being (r = 0.29, Cohen's d = 0.61).
“Their results show that PPIs can indeed be effective in enhancing well-being (r = 0.29, standardized mean difference Cohen’s d = 0.61) and help to reduce depressive symptom levels in clinical populations (r = 0.31, Cohen’s d = 0.65).”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
In Sin and Lyubomirsky's (2009) meta-analysis, study quality was not addressed as a potential effect moderator.
“Second, study quality was not addressed as a potential effect moderator.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
The meta-analysis applied stricter inclusion criteria than Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) and therefore did not include studies on related areas such as mindfulness and life review therapy.
“In addition, we applied stricter inclusion criteria than those used by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) and therefore did not include studies on any related areas such as mindfulness and life review therapy.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
Effect sizes in the current meta-analysis are around 0.3 points lower than the effect sizes in the meta-analysis by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009).
“Remarkably, effect sizes in the current meta-analysis are around 0.3 points lower than the effect sizes in the meta-analysis by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) [37].”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) [37]
Two meta-analyses of PPIs for depression and well-being found that these interventions have small to moderate effects in enhancing well-being and decreasing depressive symptoms, and effects are stronger for individual vs. group formats.
“Two meta-analyses of PPIs for depression and well-being found that these interventions have small to moderate effects in enhancing well-being and decreasing depressive symptoms and that effects are stronger for individual vs. group formats [30, 31].”
From Skills to Enhance Positivity in adolescents at risk for suicide: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial (2023) · cites this paper as [30]
PPs are effective in the improvement of depression and well-being.
“They are effective in the improvement of depression and well-being [36, 37].”
Positive psychology programs lead to significant reductions in depressive symptoms (mean r=.31).
“A meta-analysis that reviewed 51 positive psychology interventions across a spectrum of domains, found that positive psychology programs significantly increased well-being (mean r=.29) [29] and led to significant reductions in depressive symptoms (mean r=.31).”
From Feasibility and effectiveness of a web-based positive psychology program for youth mental health: Randomized controlled trial (2014) · cites this paper as [29]
Positive psychology programs significantly increase well-being (mean r=.29).
“A meta-analysis that reviewed 51 positive psychology interventions across a spectrum of domains, found that positive psychology programs significantly increased well-being (mean r=.29) [29] and led to significant reductions in depressive symptoms (mean r=.31).”
From Feasibility and effectiveness of a web-based positive psychology program for youth mental health: Randomized controlled trial (2014) · cites this paper as [29]
Sin and Lyubomirsky's (2009) meta-analysis included both randomized studies and quasi-experimental studies.
“First, the meta-analysis included both randomized studies and quasi-experimental studies.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
The Literature Search section requires included studies to have a comparison group, and Data Recorded distinguishes self-selected from non-self-selected participants. Neither passage establishes whether the meta-analysis included both randomized and quasi-experimental studies; searches for those design terms and for random assignment found no decisive passage. Page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredVlaeyen and colleagues suggest that avoidance behavior persists because of certain beliefs, such as catastrophic cognitions.
“Vlaeyen and colleagues suggest that avoidance behavior persists due to certain beliefs, such as catastrophic cognitions 25, 337, 338.”
From Evaluating psychosocial contributions to chronic pain outcomes (2018) · cites this paper as [338]
Depressed individuals benefit more from positive psychology interventions than non-depressed individuals.
“The efficacy of PPIs increased linearly with participant age, and depressed individuals benefitted more than non-depressed individuals252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
Positive psychology interventions increase well-being.
“A recent meta-analysis of PPIs including data from over four thousand adults indicated a highly significant, moderate effect of PPIs on both well-being (r = 0.29) and depressive symptoms (r = 0.31)252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
The efficacy of positive psychology interventions increases linearly with participant age.
“The efficacy of PPIs increased linearly with participant age, and depressed individuals benefitted more than non-depressed individuals252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
Positive psychology interventions delivered individually are most effective, followed by group-administered, then self-administered interventions.
“Interventions delivered individually were most effective, followed by those administered in a group, then by self-administered PPIs.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
Positive psychology interventions reduce depressive symptoms.
“A recent meta-analysis of PPIs including data from over four thousand adults indicated a highly significant, moderate effect of PPIs on both well-being (r = 0.29) and depressive symptoms (r = 0.31)252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
Positive psychology interventions may be useful for the prevention or adjunct treatment of depression.
“Although PPIs are not recommended as a stand-alone treatment for moderate-to-severe MDD, research suggests that PPIs may be useful for the prevention or adjunct treatment of depression252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
A meta-analysis established that positive psychology interventions as diverse as writing gratitude letters, practising optimistic thinking, replaying positive experiences and socializing have beneficial effects on levels of depression.
“A meta-analysis established that positive psychology interventions as diverse as writing gratitude letters, practising optimistic thinking, replaying positive experiences and socializing have beneficial effects on levels of depression 91.”
From Resilience in mental health: linking psychological and neurobiological perspectives. (2013) · cites this paper as [91]
The effect of kindness is small-to-medium and comparable to other positive psychology interventions (such as 'mindfulness', 'positive thinking' and 'counting your blessings'; d = 0.34, Bolier et al., 2013; d = 0.31, Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; d = 0.44, Weiss, Westerhof, & Bohlmeijer, 2016).
“The effect of kindness is small-to-mediumcomparable to other positive psychology interventions (such as 'mindfulness', 'positive thinking' and 'counting your blessings'; d = 0.34, Bolier et al., 2013;d = 0.31, Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009;d = 0.44, Weiss, Westerhof, & Bohlmeijer, 2016).”
From Happy to help? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of performing acts of kindness on the well-being of the actor (2018) · cites this paper as Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009
Interventions that explicitly target positive emotion show promise for improving health outcomes in a number of chronic illnesses.
“Interventions that explicitly target positive emotion show promise for improving health outcomes in a number of chronic illnesses, including diabetes [16,17], heart disease [18,19], hypertension [20,21], depression [22,23], and HIV [24].”
Interventions based on increasing positive emotion have been shown to relieve symptoms of depression in a meta-analysis.
“interventions based on increasing positive emotion have been shown to relieve symptoms of depression in a meta-analysis [23]”
Positive psychology interventions consistently increase positive states and are easily delivered to patients with chronic illnesses.
“Positive psychology (PP) interventions, which utilize systematic exercises to increase optimism, well-being, and positive affect, consistently increase positive states and are easily delivered to patients with chronic illnesses.”
From Positive Psychological Interventions for Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: Rationale, Theoretical Model, and Intervention Development (2015) · cites this paper as [43]
Positive psychology interventions have been found to increase well-being and decrease depression, with effect sizes comparable to other psychological interventions.
“PP interventions have been used in over 4000 mostly healthy subjects and have been found to increase well-being and decrease depression [41, 43], with effect sizes comparable to other psychological interventions [44, 45].”
From Positive Psychological Interventions for Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: Rationale, Theoretical Model, and Intervention Development (2015) · cites this paper as [43]
Moderation analysis revealed higher effect sizes associated with "shotgun" approaches, that is, packages that incorporate multiple positive psychology strategies.
“moderation analysis revealed higher effect sizes associated with “shotgun” approaches, that is, packages that incorporate multiple positive psychology strategies.”
From Disseminating Self-Help: Positive Psychology Exercises in an Online Trial (2012) · cites this paper as [23]
A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that compared with control conditions, positive interventions lead to reliable and moderate boosts in well-being and improvements in depressive symptoms.
“A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that compared with control conditions, positive interventions lead to reliable and moderate boosts in well-being and improvements in depressive symptoms [23].”
From Disseminating Self-Help: Positive Psychology Exercises in an Online Trial (2012) · cites this paper as [23]
Past research in positive psychology interventions has found that variety is an important moderator of intervention gains and that several techniques are more effective than a single technique.
“Past research in positive psychology interventions has found that variety is an important moderator of intervention gains and that several techniques are more effective than a single technique [23,36].”
From Disseminating Self-Help: Positive Psychology Exercises in an Online Trial (2012) · cites this paper as [23]
Studies supporting the efficacy of positive activity interventions have been primarily conducted in unselected (non-clinical) community samples and examined single positive activities in isolation.
“Studies supporting the efficacy of positive activity interventions (PAIs) have been primarily conducted in unselected (non-clinical) community samples and examined single positive activities in isolation (for a meta-analysis, see66, 67).”
From Upregulating the positive affect system in anxiety and depression: Outcomes of a positive activity intervention: <scp>Taylor et al.</scp> (2017) · cites this paper as [66]
PP exercises have been successfully used by more than 4000 participants in over 50 clinical trials, though typically in nonclinical populations.
“Overall, PP exercises have been successfully used by more than 4000 participants in over 50 clinical trials [20,21], though typically in nonclinical populations.”
From Feasibility and utility of positive psychology exercises for suicidal inpatients (2014) · cites this paper as [20]
These differences may be related to the fact that the first meta-analyses focused on subjective well-being whereas the second one included 10 different measures of psychological well-being.
“These differences may be related to the fact that the first meta-analyses focused on subjective well-being whereas the second one included 10 different measures of psychological well-being in addition to the PWBS and MHC-SF, for example hope, mastery and purpose in life.”
From Can We Increase Psychological Well-Being? The Effects of Interventions on Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
Both previous meta-analyses focused on specific positive psychological interventions, whereas our study included a number of different therapeutic interventions.
“Furthermore, both previous meta-analyses focused on specific positive psychological interventions, whereas our study included a number of different therapeutic interventions.”
From Can We Increase Psychological Well-Being? The Effects of Interventions on Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
The effect size of psychological well-being is somewhat lower than .61 reported by Sin and Lyubomirsky and somewhat higher than .20 reported by Bolier et al.
“The effect size of psychological well-being is somewhat lower than the standardized mean difference of .61 that was reported in a meta-analysis by Sin and Lyubomirsky (11) and somewhat higher than the effect of .20 for psychological well-being in a meta-analysis by Bolier et al. [12].”
From Can We Increase Psychological Well-Being? The Effects of Interventions on Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
Positive psychology interventions (PPIs), such as mindful self-awareness, gratitude expression, and identifying and utilizing strengths, have been shown to impact both well-being and depressive symptoms.
“Positive psychology interventions (PPIs), such as mindful self-awareness, gratitude expression, and identifying and utilizing strengths, have been shown to impact both well-being and depressive symptoms [29-31].”
From MoodHacker Mobile Web App With Email for Adults to Self-Manage Mild-to-Moderate Depression: Randomized Controlled Trial (2016) · cites this paper as [29]
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Self-citationPositive Emotions Trigger Upward Spirals Toward Emotional Well-Being
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“PPIs can be especially effective for treating residual symptoms (Fava et al., 1998) and preventing future relapse for formerly depressed clients (Seligman et al., 2006).”
BackgroundDevelopment of a program to increase personal happiness.
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Cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching: Enhancing goal striving, well-being, and hope
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“…increases in positive emotions, which have been shown to speed recovery from the physiological effects of negative emotions (Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004), to improve broad-minded coping skills (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002), and to prevent relapses (Fava & Ruini, 2003).”
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A program to increase happiness: Further studies.
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Well-Being Therapy of Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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Writing about the Perceived Benefits of Traumatic Events: Implications for Physical Health
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Neural systems of positive affect: relevance to understanding child and adolescent depression?
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Character strengths in the United Kingdom: The VIA Inventory of Strengths
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Well-Being Therapy in School Settings: A Pilot Study
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The effect of positive writing on emotional intelligence and life satisfaction
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Improved self-management ability and well-being in older women after a short group intervention
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EFFECTS OF REMINISCENCE ON LIFE SATISFACTION OF ELDERLY FEMALE NURSING HOME RESIDENTS
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Increasing happiness through cognitive retraining.
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Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Della Porta M.D., 2008, Searching for the placebo effect in happiness‐enhancing interventions: An experimental longitudinal study with depressed and nondepressed participants
- *Lyubomirsky S. Dickerhoof R. Boehm J.K. &Sheldon K.M.(2008).Becoming happier takes both a will and a proper way: Two experimental longitudinal interventions to boost well‐being. Manuscript under review.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Gratitude and well-being: A review and theoretical integration
Wood, A. M., Froh, J. J., & Geraghty, A. W. A. (2010) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.005 · Cited by 2,131 · see citing works
“Such problems are highlighted by a recent meta-analysis of positive psychology interventions (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), which showed the interventions were (a) most effective against notreatment controls, (b) were less effective against “treatment as usual controls”, and (c) were less effective…”
Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies
Bolier, L., Haverman, M., Westerhof, G. J., Riper, H., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-119 · Cited by 1,996 · see citing works
“This study will add to the existing literature and the above meta-analytical review [37] by 1) only including randomized controlled studies, 2) taking the methodological quality of the primary studies into account, 3) including the most recent studies (2009 – 2012), 4) analyzing not only post-test effects but also lon…”
InfluentialPsychological Capital: An Evidence-Based Positive Approach
Luthans, F., & Youssef‐Morgan, C. M. (2017) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113324 · Cited by 1,616 · see citing works
“Indeed, positive psychological interventions have been found to be more effective in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures (Sin & Lyubomirsky 2009).”
BackgroundVago, D. R., & Silbersweig, D. A. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00296 · Cited by 1,310 · see citing works
“…and withdrawal), impaired self-regulation, and psychopathology; conversely, current data suggest that approach behavior including more engaging perceptions involving interest, approval, or acceptance typically lead to healthier outcomes (Waikar and Craske, 1997; Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundHow Do Simple Positive Activities Increase Well-Being?
Lyubomirsky, S., & Layous, K. (2013) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412469809 · Cited by 1,197 · see citing works
“For example, older people benefit relatively more than younger people from practicing a range of positive activities (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), perhaps because they have more time to commit to the activities, take them more seriously, and engage in them more effortfully.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationAdvances and Open Questions in the Science of Subjective Well-Being
Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Oishi, S. (2018) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.115 · Cited by 1,149 · see citing works
The effect of contact with natural environments on positive and negative affect: A meta-analysis
McMahan, E. A., & Estes, D. (2015) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2014.994224 · Cited by 833 · see citing works
“This research indicates that engagement in a wide variety of activities, such as writing gratitude letters, practicing optimistic thinking, socializing, and mentally replaying pleasurable experiences, produces stable increases in SWB (Mazzucchelli, Kane, & Rees, 2010; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundEvaluating psychosocial contributions to chronic pain outcomes
Meints, S. M., & Edwards, R. R. (2018) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.01.017 · Cited by 719 · see citing works
“nitions, and behaviors rather than reducing negative ones (Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
If, Why, and When Subjective Well‐Being Influences Health, and Future Needed Research
Diener, E., Pressman, S. D., Hunter, J. F., & Delgadillo‐Chase, D. (2017) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12090 · Cited by 721 · see citing works
“Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) present a meta-analysis of the SWB treatments ’ effectiveness in altering levels of SWB, and a number of interventions appear to have exerted a bene fi cial in fl uence.”
BackgroundToo Much of a Good Thing: The Challenge and Opportunity of the Inverted U
Grant, A. M., & Schwartz, B. (2011) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691610393523 · Cited by 668 · see citing works
Quoidbach, J., Berry, E. V., Hansenne, M., & Mikolajczak, M. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.048 · Cited by 660 · see citing works
“Yet, the cultivation of positive emotion has recently been promoted by an explosion of research on happiness enhancing interventions (e.g., Brown & Ryan, 2003; Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundFindings All Psychologists Should Know From the New Science on Subjective Well-Being
Diener, E., Heintzelman, S. J., Kushlev, K., Tay, L., Wirtz, D., Lutes, L., & Oishi, S. (2017) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/cap0000063 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
“Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) examined 51 SWB intervention studies and concluded that these were, indeed, effective at enhancing SWB, r .29.”
BackgroundEffectiveness of positive psychology interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Carr, A., Cullen, K., Keeney, C., Canning, C., Mooney, O., Chinseallaigh, E., & O’Dowd, A. (2021) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2020.1818807 · Cited by 645 · see citing works
“…the effect of PPIs on outcome was consistent with the fact that each of these moderators has been found to have significant effects in least three of six previous PPI metaanalyses (Bolier et al., 2013; Chakhssi et al., 2018; Hendriks et al., 2020, 2018; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; Weiss et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNelson, S. K., Kushlev, K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0035444 · Cited by 638 · see citing works
“Experimental research suggests that people can intentionally increase their happiness and frequency of positive emotions by practicing a variety of positive activities (for a review and a meta-analysis, respectively, see Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSocial Interactions and Well-Being
Sandstrom, G. M., & Dunn, E. W. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214529799 · Cited by 637 · see citing works
Setting an Agenda for Positive Psychology in SLA: Theory, Practice, and Research
MACINTYRE, P. D., GREGERSEN, T., & MERCER, S. (2019) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12544 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Positive interventions: An emotion regulation perspective.
Quoidbach, J., Mikolajczak, M., & Gross, J. J. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038648 · Cited by 546 · see citing works
“…Bulletin © 2015 American Psychological Association 2015, Vol. 141, No. 2, 000 0033-2909/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038648 1 depressive symptoms with a level of effectiveness similar to traditional psychotherapy (see Bolier et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009, for meta-analyses).”
BackgroundInfluentialCurry, O. S., Rowland, L. A., Van Lissa, C. J., Zlotowitz, S., McAlaney, J., & Whitehouse, H. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.02.014 · Cited by 528 · see citing works
“The e ff ect of kindness is small-to-medium – comparable to other positive psychology interventions (such as ‘ mindfulness ’ , ‘ positive thinking ’ and ‘ counting your blessings ’ ; d=0.34, Bolier et al., 2013; d=0.31, Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; d=0.44, Weiss, Westerhof, & Bohlmeijer, 2016).”
InfluentialPersonality, Well-Being, and Health*
Friedman, H. S., & Kern, M. L. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115123 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
Toward a psychological framework of radical healing in communities of color
French, B. H., Lewis, J. A., Mosley, D. V., Adames, H. Y., Chavez-Dueñas, N. Y., Chen, G. A., & Neville, H. A. (2020) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000019843506 · Cited by 522 · see citing works
“Positive psychology researchers have consistently documented the psychological benefits of hope (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002) in college students (Chang & Banks, 2007) and adolescents (Roesch, Duangado, Vaughn, Aldridge, & Villodas, 2010), including for POCI.”
BackgroundA systematic review and meta-analysis of psychological interventions to improve mental wellbeing
van Agteren, J., Iasiello, M., Lo, L., Bartholomaeus, J., Kopsaftis, Z., Carey, M., & Kyrios, M. (2021) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01093-w · Cited by 510 · see citing works
A Review of School-Based Positive Psychology Interventions
Waters, L. (2011) · The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1375/aedp.28.2.75 · Cited by 502 · see citing works
“Positive psychology interventions (PPIs) are characterised by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009, p. 467) as programs, practices, treatment methods or activities ‘aimed at cultivating positive feelings, positive behaviours, or positive cognitions’.”
BackgroundLife Satisfaction and Student Engagement in Adolescents
Lewis, A. D., Huebner, E., Malone, P., & Valois, R. (2011) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9517-6 · Cited by 511 · see citing works
“Individual difference factors , such as life satisfaction, can be altered through interventions, unlike personality/temperament variables that are more resistant to interventions (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005; Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009).”
BackgroundBusseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868310391271 · Cited by 496 · see citing works
“Interest in SWBrelated interventions is growing, and a variety of potentially effective techniques to alter levels of LS, PA, and NA have been reported (see Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundWorkplace mental health: developing an integrated intervention approach
LaMontagne, A. D., Martin, A. J., Page, K. M., Reavley, N. J., Noblet, A. J., Milner, A. J., Keegel, T. G., & Smith, P. M. (2014) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-14-131 · Cited by 516 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis of the general literature (in all settings) concluded that wellbeing can be sustainably enhanced and depressive symptoms reduced through positive interventions [49].”
BackgroundPositive Clinical Psychology: A new vision and strategy for integrated research and practice
Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (2010) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.06.003 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Beyond positive psychology? Toward a contextual view of psychological processes and well-being.
McNulty, J. K., & Fincham, F. D. (2011) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0024572 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
“…acquired from research on positive psychology should inform therapy and prevention efforts (e.g., Bono & McCullough, 2006; Duckworth et al., 2005; Frisch, 2006; Ingram & Snyder, 2006; Karwoski, Garratt, & Ilardi, 2006; Seligman, 2002; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000b; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
Steptoe, A. (2019) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044150 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
“These include programs involving mindfulness, counting one’s blessings, focusing on signature strengths, positive psychotherapy, savoring positive experiences, and other procedures (18, 122).”
BackgroundVanhove, A. J., Herian, M. N., Perez, A. L. U., Harms, P. D., & Lester, P. B. (2016) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12123 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
“…(Skeffington et al., 2013), as well as those that have been categorized by others as workplace health promotion (Martin et al., 2009), stress management (Richardson & Rothstein, 2008), or positive psychology and wellbeing interventions (Meyers, van Woerkom, & Bakker, 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundResultGander, F., Proyer, R. T., Ruch, W., & Wyss, T. (2013) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9380-0 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
“Given the characteristics of the study (self-administration, online, one or two interventions per group), small effects were expected (Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialHowells, A., Ivtzan, I., & Eiroa-Orosa, F. J. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-014-9589-1 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
“…have demonstrated that an assortment of brief, simple cognitive and behavioural strategies collectively known as positive interventions can effectively improve happiness and wellbeing (for detailed reviews see Layous and Lyubomirsky 2014; Parks and Biswas-Diener 2013; Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialBartlett, L., Martin, A., Neil, A. L., Memish, K., Otahal, P., Kilpatrick, M., & Sanderson, K. (2019) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000146 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
“…employee coping capacity and improve mental health and well-being, and have been shown to support work-related performance (Bono, Glomb, Shen, Kim, & Koch, 2013; Dawkins, Martin, Scott, & Sanderson, 2015; Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007; Roche, Haar, & Luthans, 2014; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
Resilience in mental health: linking psychological and neurobiological perspectives.
Rutten, B. P. F., Hammels, C., Geschwind, N., Menne‐Lothmann, C., Pishva, E., Schruers, K., van den Hove, D., Kenis, G., van Os, J., & Wichers, M. (2013) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12095 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis established that positive psychology interventions as diverse as writing gratitude letters, practising optimistic thinking, replaying positive experiences and socializing have beneficial effects on levels of depression (91).”
BackgroundA wonderful life: experiential consumption and the pursuit of happiness
Gilovich, T., Kumar, A., & Jampol, L. E. (2015) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.08.004 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
“Some efforts to do just that have been reported (Dunn, Gilbert, &Wilson, 2011; Dunn & Norton, 2013) and they represent an important component of the positive psychology movement (Gable & Haidt, 2005; Seligman, 2002; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Sheldon & King, 2001; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundLy, K. H., Ly, A.-M., & Andersson, G. (2017) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2017.10.002 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Psychosocial issues in spinal cord injury: a review
Post, M. W. M., & van Leeuwen, C. M. C. (2012) · Spinal Cord · doi:10.1038/sc.2011.182 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Positive emotion regulation in emotional disorders: A theoretical review
Carl, J. R., Soskin, D. P., Kerns, C., & Barlow, D. H. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.01.003 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Weiss, L. A., Westerhof, G. J., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158092 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
“We PLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0158092 June 21, 2016 3 / 16 screened the reference lists of included studies and of the meta-analyses of Sin and Lyubomirsky (11), Bolier et al. [12] and the review of Ryff [15] for additional potentially eligible studies.”
BackgroundInfluentialHuppert, F. A., & Johnson, D. M. (2010) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439761003794148 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
“In a recent review of positive psychology interventions, Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) included a large number of studies which used mindfulness training.”
BackgroundThe benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression
Shapira, L. B., & Mongrain, M. (2010) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.516763 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
“Previous research has highlighted the beneficial effects of positive psychology exercises, including a recent meta-analysis indicating that these interventions, overall, increase well-being and reduce depressive symptoms (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009 ).”
BackgroundHow Efficient Are Emotional Intelligence Trainings: A Meta-Analysis
Hodžić, S., Scharfen, J., Ripoll, P., Holling, H., & Zenasni, F. (2017) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073917708613 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
“For example, Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) found that duration of the positive psychology interventions was a significant determinant of their effectiveness, and that longer interventions were more beneficial for well-being.”
BackgroundA dynamic approach to psychological strength development and intervention
Biswas‐Diener, R., Kashdan, T. B., & Minhas, G. (2011) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.545429 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
Layous, K., Nelson, S. K., Oberle, E., Schonert-Reichl, K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051380 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Self-citationReducing distress in mothers of children with autism and other disabilities: a randomized trial
Dykens, E. M., Fisher, M. H., Taylor, J. L., Lambert, W., & Miodrag, N. (2014) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2013-3164 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Nelson, S. K., Layous, K., Cole, S. W., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000178 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Self-citationPositive psychotherapy: A strength-based approach
Rashid, T. (2014) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2014.920411 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
“The first meta-analysis of 51 positive interventions including both clinical and non-clinical samples, conducted by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009), found that positive interventions are effective, with moderate effect sizes in significantly decreasing symptoms of depression (mean r = 0.31) and…”
InfluentialChakhssi, F., Kraiss, J. T., Sommers‐Spijkerman, M., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2018) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1739-2 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
“Although PPIs have been mostly examined in non-clinical samples [16], some preliminary evidence exist for their efficacy in clinical samples [16, 17].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialProctor, C., Tsukayama, E., Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Eades, J. F., & Linley, P. A. (2011) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2011.594079 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
“…personal, behavioral, psychological, and social outcomes (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005) it is vital to understand how to lift those who are languishing and unhappy to a more optimal state of functioning (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009) while protecting those with positive levels from diminishing.”
BackgroundInfluentialKorn, C. W., Sharot, T., Walter, H., Heekeren, H. R., & Dolan, R. J. (2014) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291713001074 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Meyers, M. C., van Woerkom, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2012) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2012.694689 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
“In a meta-analysis of 51 positive psychology interventions, meant to enhance well-being and mitigate depression, one can find gratitude interventions, positive writing, and mindfulness interventions among the most occurring (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBehavioral activation interventions for well-being: A meta-analysis
Mazzucchelli, T. G., Kane, R. T., & Rees, C. S. (2010) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760903569154 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
“Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) recently conducted a meta-analysis of positive psychology interventions *Corresponding author.”
BackgroundInfluentialHendriks, T., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Hassankhan, A., de Jong, J. T. V. M., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2019) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-019-00082-1 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Cohn, M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.508883 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
“A discussion of the full range of positive psychology interventions, or even the subset of PE interventions, is beyond the scope of this article (for a review, see Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009 ).”
BackgroundCasellas-Grau, A., Font, A., & Vives, J. (2014) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.3353 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Character Strengths Interventions: Building on What We Know for Improved Outcomes
Quinlan, D. M., Swain, N., & Vella‐Brodrick, D. (2011) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-011-9311-5 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Hendriks, T., Warren, M. A., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Hassankhan, A., Graafsma, T., Bohlmeijer, E., & de Jong, J. (2019) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2018.1484941 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
“PPIs may bypass this problem because they are focused on enhancing positive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), and through the practice of gratitude, optimism, acts of kindness, meditation, and other activities that are not stigmatizing (Layous, Chancellor, Lyubomirsky,…”
BackgroundShoshani, A., & Guttmann-Steinmetz, S. (2013) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9476-1 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
“Indeed, others have found that the absence of mental illness does not indubitably imply the presence of high levels of positive mental health and vice versa (Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009).”
BackgroundRoepke, A. M., Jaffee, S. R., Riffle, O. M., McGonigal, J., Broome, R., & Maxwell, B. (2015) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2014.0046 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
“28 The intervention was targeted to occur on the SB iPhone app, but participants could also use the SB Web site on their personal computers.”
Kun, Á., & Gadanecz, P. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00550-0 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
“Workplace positive psychology interventions are relatively few in number and many previous studies have not focused much on what individuals can do to enhance their own well-being themselves (Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009; Wood et al. 2010; Mazzucchelli et al. 2010).”
BackgroundPain and Depression: An Integrative Review of Neurobiological and Psychological Factors
Goesling, J., Clauw, D. J., & Hassett, A. L. (2013) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-013-0421-0 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Does savoring increase happiness? A daily diary study
Jose, P. E., Lim, B. T., & Bryant, F. B. (2012) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2012.671345 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
“With the emergence of the positive psychology movement, researchers have begun to explore ways to sustain increases in happiness and subjective well-being (Cohn & Fredrickson, 2010; Schueller, 2010; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundThe resilience portfolio model: Understanding healthy adaptation in victims of violence.
Grych, J., Hamby, S., & Banyard, V. (2015) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/a0039671 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
“Concerns also have been raised about the quality of data used to support some interventions, including the appropriateness of the comparison groups utilized (e.g., Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009; Wood et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodGratitude and health: An updated review
Jans-Beken, L., Jacobs, N., Janssens, M., Peeters, S. C. T., Reijnders, J. S. A. M., Lechner, L., & Lataster, J. (2019) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2019.1651888 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
“The use of such a ‘shotgun approach’ (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), combining different (positive) intervention elements into a larger, comprehensive program, has previously been suggested to increase chances of establishing effects on indicators of mental well-being (Ramírez et al., 2014), together…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialTrudel‐Fitzgerald, C., Millstein, R. A., von Hippel, C. D., Howe, C. J., Tomasso, L. P., Wagner, G. R., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2019) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-019-8029-x · Cited by 271 · see citing works
“Positive psychology (PP) thus appears as a compelling intervention strategy, as it aims to improve the frequency and intensity of positive emotional experiences, including optimism, gratitude, purpose/satisfaction in life, and positive affect, through intentional actions in the form of targeted, structured activities…”
BackgroundOccupational Stress: Preventing Suffering, Enhancing Wellbeing
Quick, J. C., & Henderson, D. F. (2016) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph13050459 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
“Positive psychology interventions (PPIs) stem from research that focuses on teaching individuals how to increase positive thinking and behaviors through brief, self-administered exercises [61,62].”
BackgroundGreer, S., Ramo, D., Chang, Y.-J., Fu, M., Moskowitz, J., & Haritatos, J. (2019) · JMIR mHealth and uHealth · doi:10.2196/15018 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
“Depression is common among young people with cancer [31], and interventions based on increasing positive emotion have been shown to relieve symptoms of depression in a meta-analysis [23].”
Pursuing happiness in everyday life: The characteristics and behaviors of online happiness seekers.
Parks, A. C., Porta, M. D. D., Pierce, R. S., Zilca, R., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0028587 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“Although a growing number of studies show that happiness strategies are effective in an experimental setting (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), it remains unclear whether performing these activities is related to boosts in well-being in the real-world.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPsychological Well-Being and Physical Health: Associations, Mechanisms, and Future Directions
Hernandez, R., Bassett, S. M., Boughton, S. W., Schuette, S. A., Shiu, E. W., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2018) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073917697824 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
“…affect and psychological well-being and have significantly led to reduced symptoms of depression in heterogeneous samples of mostly healthy adults (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009) and reduced depression in women with metastatic breast cancer (Cheung et al., 2016) and people with Type 2 diabetes (Cohn,…”
BackgroundThe plasticity of well-being: A training-based framework for the cultivation of human flourishing
Dahl, C. J., Wilson-Mendenhall, C., & Davidson, R. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.2014859117 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Dickens, L. R. (2017) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2017.1323638 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
“Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) analyzed 51 studies of positive psychology interventions more generally and found significant improvements for participants’ well-being and depression.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Challenge of Staying Happier
Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212436400 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Self-citationLinking Goal Progress and Subjective Well-Being: A Meta-analysis
Klug, H. J. P., & Maier, G. W. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9493-0 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Revisiting the Sustainable Happiness Model and Pie Chart: Can Happiness Be Successfully Pursued?
Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2019) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2019.1689421 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
“Although positive psychology interventions (also known as positive activity interventions) have been shown to have real effects, a recent authoritative metaanalysis revealed that these effects are rather small (White, Uttl, & Holder, 2019; cf. Bolier et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPositive activities as protective factors against mental health conditions
Layous, K., Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034709 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Self-citationLayous, K., Nelson, S. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9346-2 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
“…format, such as individual or group therapy, would likely lead to greater average improvements in well-being than a self-administered approach (Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009), these benefits must be balanced against the anonymity and accessibility afforded by an online, self-administered format.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDisseminating Self-Help: Positive Psychology Exercises in an Online Trial
Schueller, S. M., & Parks, A. C. (2012) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.1850 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
“Past research in positive psychology interventions has found that variety is an important moderator of intervention gains and that several techniques are more effective than a single technique [23,36].”
BackgroundAn investigation of the relationship between positive affect regulation and depression
Werner-Seidler, A., Banks, R., Dunn, B. D., & Moulds, M. L. (2013) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.11.001 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“While studies are beginning to explore the impact of mindfulness based cognitive therapy and positive psychology approaches on positive affect (e.g. Geschwind, Peeters, Drukker, van Os, & Wichers, 2011; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), insight into the underlying mechanism of change is largely absent.”
BackgroundWorkplace Stress Management Interventions and Health Promotion
Tetrick, L. E., & Winslow, C. J. (2015) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111341 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Proyer, R., Ruch, W., & Buschor, C. (2013) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9331-9 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) define positive interventions as ‘‘treatment methods or intentional activities aimed at cultivating positive R. T. Proyer (&) W. Ruch C. Buschor Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/7, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland e-mail:…”
BackgroundDoes Happiness Promote Career Success? Revisiting the Evidence
Walsh, L. C., Boehm, J. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2018) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072717751441 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Self-citationTian, L., Chen, H., & Huebner, E. S. (2013) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-013-0495-4 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
“…may thus inform academic and health promotion efforts because needs satisfaction can be altered through interventions, unlike personality/temperament variables that are more resistant to interventions (Lyubomirsky King et al. 2005; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon et al. 2005; Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009).”
BackgroundExistential therapies: A meta-analysis of their effects on psychological outcomes.
Vos, J., Craig, M., & Cooper, M. (2014) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037167 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
“Interventions with a positive psychological focus, hich may be compared with meaning therapies in which a positive focus is oriented at finding meaning, showed similarly moderate effects (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundTaylor, C. T., Lyubomirsky, S., & Stein, M. B. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22593 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
“Studies supporting the efficacy of positive activity interventions (PAIs) have been primarily conducted in unselected (nonclinical) community samples and examined single positive activities in isolation (for a meta-analysis, see (Bolier et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009)).”
Self-citationLindsay, E. K., Chin, B., Greco, C. M., Young, S., Brown, K. W., Wright, A. G. C., Smyth, J. M., Burkett, D., & Creswell, J. D. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000134 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
“At the same time, although not all psychological interventions designed to increase positive affect have been successful (see Parks & Biswas-Diener, 2013), there are several evidence-based interventions for improving happiness (for reviews, see Bolier et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life
Laird, K. T., Krause, B., Funes, C., & Lavretsky, H. (2019) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0424-7 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Positive living: A pilot study of group positive psychotherapy for people with schizophrenia
Meyer-Kalos, P., Johnson, D. P., Parks, A. C., Iwanski, C., & Penn, D. L. (2012) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2012.677467 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
“In a meta-analysis of PPIs, researchers found that these types of interventions improve well-being and can effectively treat the symptoms of depression (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
Randomized controlled trial of a positive affect intervention for people newly diagnosed with HIV.
Moskowitz, J. T., Carrico, A. W., Duncan, L. G., Cohn, M. A., Cheung, E. O., Batchelder, A., Martinez, L., Segawa, E., Acree, M., & Folkman, S. (2017) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000188 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
“…and the difference in change over time was comparable to average effects found in meta-analysis of positive interventions (Bolier, et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), the group difference in change from baseline over time was not statistically significant (p = .12) and the effect size was…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialEvaluating Positive Psychology Interventions at Work: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Donaldson, S. I., Lee, J. Y., & Donaldson, S. I. (2019) · International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology · doi:10.1007/s41042-019-00021-8 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Proyer, R., Gander, F., Wellenzohn, S., & Ruch, W. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00456 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
“With the emergence of positive psychology the interest in those types of activities has steadily increased and Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) already list 51 intervention studies in their meta-analysis.”
BackgroundA Meta-Analysis of the Relations Between Three Types of Peer Norms and Adolescent Sexual Behavior
van de Bongardt, D., Reitz, E., Sandfort, T. G. M., & Deković, M. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314544223 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
“For the present research, we followed the example of meta-analyses that conducted and reported both fixed-effects and randomeffects models (e.g., Kirsch et al., 2008; Shamosh & Gray, 2007; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
Method(2013) · OAR@UM (University of Malta) · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Carver, C. S., & Vargas, S. E. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342819.013.0008 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Culture Matters When Designing a Successful Happiness-Increasing Activity
Layous, K., Lee, K., Choi, I., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022113487591 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
“Increasing evidence shows that people can purposely and effortfully improve their own happiness through simple self-directed positive practices (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationCregg, D. R., & Cheavens, J. S. (2021) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-020-00236-6 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Grateful to God or just plain grateful? A comparison of religious and general gratitude
Rosmarin, D. H., Pirutinsky, S., Cohen, A. B., Galler, Y., & Krumrei-Mancuso, E. J. (2011) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2011.596557 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Feasibility and utility of positive psychology exercises for suicidal inpatients
Huffman, J. C., DuBois, C. M., Healy, B. C., Boehm, J. K., Kashdan, T. B., Celano, C. M., Denninger, J. W., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.10.006 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“Given that not all subjects completed each exercise and to account for the order of exercise administration and age (given data about greater impact of PP exercises in older adults [20]), we compared scores across the exercises on all outcome variables (change in hopelessness, change in optimism, utility, ease, effica…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationHumor and Resiliency: Towards a Process Model of Coping and Growth
Kuiper, N. A. (2012) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v8i3.464 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
“One possible avenue of research could compare humor use training with training in the use of other positive psychology techniques that also promote increased positive affect, such as savoring or gratitude expression (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
InfluentialA resilience framework for promoting stable remission from depression
Waugh, C. E., & Koster, E. H. W. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.05.004 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
“For instance, a meta-analysis revealed that interventions aimed at enhancing positive emotions (e.g., encouraging gratitude, considering positive events) enhance well-being and decrease depressive symptoms (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundRuiz-Aranda, D., Extremera, N., & Pineda-Galán, C. (2014) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12052 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Fledderus, M., Bohlmeijer, E. T., Smit, F., & Westerhof, G. J. (2010) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2010.196196 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
- Authors
- Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- Corresponding author
- Sin, Nancy L.
- Lyubomirsky, Sonja
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-03-19
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 467-487
- ISSN
- 0021-9762 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-4679
- OpenAlex
- W2038506024
- Cited by
- 2,955
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 107 · 2025: 175 · 2024: 168 · 2023: 196 · 2022: 231 · 2021: 319 · 2020: 257 · 2019: 246 · 2018: 214 · 2017: 186 · 2016: 212 · 2015: 182 · 2014: 157 · 2013: 104 · 2012: 80
- FWCI
- 9.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Keywords
- positive psychology interventions, well-being, depressive symptoms, depression treatment, intervention effectiveness, self-selection, intervention duration, age differences, clinician guidance
- MeSH terms
- Depression, Depressive Disorder, Emotions, Humans, Personal Satisfaction, Psychology, Clinical, Psychotherapy, Treatment Outcome
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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