Phonological, visual, and semantic coding strategies and children's short-term picture memory span
Abstract
Three experiments addressed controversies in the previous literature on the development of phonological and other forms of short-term memory coding in children, using assessments of picture memory span that ruled out potentially confounding effects of verbal input and output. Picture materials were varied in terms of phonological similarity, visual similarity, semantic similarity, and word length. Older children (6/8-year-olds), but not younger children (4/5-year-olds), demonstrated robust and consistent phonological similarity and word length effects, indicating that they were using phonological coding strategies. This confirmed findings initially reported by Conrad (1971), but subsequently questioned by other authors. However, in contrast to some previous research, little evidence was found for a distinct visual coding stage at 4 years, casting doubt on assumptions that this is a developmental stage that consistently precedes phonological coding. There was some evidence for a dual visual and phonological coding stage prior to exclusive use of phonological coding at around 5–6 years. Evidence for semantic similarity effects was limited, suggesting that semantic coding is not a key method by which young children recall lists of pictures.
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When children are asked to learn a set of pictures, those aged 7 and over tend to exhibit a phonological similarity effect, suggesting that visual material is being recoded into a verbal form via subvocal rehearsal (i.e., inner speech).
“When children are asked to learn a set of pictures, those aged 7 and over tend to exhibit a phonological similarity effect, suggesting that visual material is being recoded into a verbal form via subvocal rehearsal (i.e., inner speech).”
From Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology (2015) · cites this paper as Henry, Messer, Luger-Klein, & Crane, 2012
The General Discussion reports a phonological similarity effect in 7/8-year-olds, supporting the age-specific observation. But the Experiment 1 summary describes verbal rehearsal as only possible, and the General Discussion cautions that the effects establish phonological coding rather than rehearsal specifically. The claim's explanation via subvocal rehearsal is therefore stronger than the paper supports. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredChildren younger than 7 tend not to demonstrate the phonological similarity effect, suggesting an absence of verbal rehearsal strategies.
“Children younger than 7, in contrast, tend not to demonstrate this effect, suggesting an absence of verbal rehearsal strategies (Henry, Messer, Luger-Klein, & Crane, 2012).”
From Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology (2015) · cites this paper as Henry, Messer, Luger-Klein, & Crane, 2012
The paper’s Summary reports no phonological similarity effect in 4–5-year-olds, supporting the claim for some younger children. But it reports the effect in 6–8-year-olds, and the General Discussion notes evidence of phonological coding even at age 5 in a combined analysis. It also treats verbal rehearsal as possible, not as something whose absence can be inferred from the similarity effect alone. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.90)
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Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology
Alderson-Day, B., & Fernyhough, C. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000021 · Cited by 808 · see citing works
- Authors
- Henry, L. A., Messer, D., Luger-Klein, S., & Crane, L.
- Affiliations
- London South Bank University (GB)
- The Open University (GB)
- Venue
- Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-10
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 2033-2053
- ISSN
- 0033-555X (ISSN-L)
- 1747-0218
- 1747-0226
- OpenAlex
- W2014212027
- Cited by
- 55
- References
- 5
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 6.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (publishedVersion)
- City Research Online (City University London) (acceptedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- short-term memory, phonological coding, visual coding, semantic encoding, children's memory development, phonological similarity, word length, semantic similarity, dual coding
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Analysis of Variance, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Phonetics, Photic Stimulation, Reaction Time, Semantics, Time Factors, Verbal Learning, Visual Perception, Recognition, Psychology, Self Report
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