21-cm line studies of spiral galaxies. II. The distribution and kinematics of neutral hydrogen in spiral galaxies of various morphological types.
Abstract
We have collected detailed 21-cm maps and associated velocity fields in order to study the relation between the dynamical and morphological properties of spiral galaxies. A description is given of the various deviations from axisymmetry in spirals as is evident from the velocity fields. A large number of spirals exhibit large-scale symmetric deviations, to be interpreted either as oval distortions or as kinematical warps. Most galaxies also have asymmetries, which are sometimes quite large. Motions associated with spiral arms are found only in studies with high resolution (radius/beam size larger than 15 or 20). Despite the complications due to the irregularities in the velocity fields, crude rotation curves can be derived. Most of them are flat enough to indicate that there is a large amount of high M/L material in the outer parts. The extent of a galaxy is not well determined and there is a large variety of H I sizes. The relation between dynamics and morphology of spiral galaxies could not be very well assessed in view of these complications.
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The rotation curves of spiral galaxies remain flat or even slightly rising at radii well beyond the stellar disc, where the Keplerian prediction would require a steep decline.
“Rubin et al. (1978) showed optically, and Bosma (1981) confirmed with 21 cm measurements of neutral hydrogen (HI) extending to much larger radii, that the RCs of spiral galaxies remain flat or even slightly rising at radii well beyond the stellar disc, where the Keplerian prediction would require a steep decline.”
From The rotation curve of the Milky Way: State of the art, the Keplerian decline debate, and implications for dark matter (2026) · cites this paper as Bosma (1981)
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“Strongly oval galaxies can be recognized independently by photometric criteria (Kormendy & Norman 1979; Kormendy 1982a) and by kinematic criteria (Bosma 1981a, b).”
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“Early observations of the rotation curves of spiral galaxies clearly indicated the presence of “missing” matter in these objects (e.g., Bosma 1978; Rubin et al. 1978; Bosma 1981; see also Sofue & Rubin 2001).”
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“The study of rotation curves has played a key role in our understanding of the mass distribution in galaxies (e.g., Rubin et al. 1978; Bosma 1981; van Albada et al. 1985).”
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“…the velocity dispersions of dwarf Spheroidal galaxies (e.g., Vogt et al. 1995), the flat rotation curves of spiral galaxies (Rubin et al. 1980; Bosma 1981), the statistics of satellite galaxy orbits (Zaritsky & White 1994), the timing argument in the Local Group (Kahn & Woltjer 1959), the…”
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BackgroundInfluentialDark matter in spiral galaxies
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“Several of the issues considered in this paper have also been addressed by Bosma (1978, 1981b), Bosma & van der Kruit (1979), Faber & Gallagher (1979), Petrou (198 I ) , Bahcall & Casertano (1985), Carignan & Freeman (1985), Rubin (1983, 1986), Rubin et al. (1986)~ van Albada et al. (1985), Sancisi…”
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“This relation has been demonstrated using both Hα observations (Rubin & Ford 1970; Rubin et al. 1980) and radio HI observations (Bosma 1981).”
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BackgroundA Search for Kinematic Evidence of Radial Gas Flows in Spiral Galaxies
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“The kinematics of warped galaxies can usually be well-modeled with a tilted-ring fit (Rogstad, Lockhart, & Wright 1974; Bosma 1981), in which the inclination i and the major axis position angle Γmaj are allowed to vary with radius.”
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“…the fundamental scaling relationships between properties of the galaxies and properties of the absorbers is the Ðrst step toward understanding the nature and origin of the gas, analogous to establishing the and relationships for theHolmberg (1975) Bosma (1981) outer, tenuous parts of galaxies.”
BackgroundIorio, L. (2015) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe1010038 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“galaxies [303–305] and the accelerated expansion of the Universe [220–222], it might be that GTR need to be modified [306–311] also at astrophysical and cosmological scales in order to cope with the issue of the so-called “dark” [312] components of the matter-energy content of the Universe known as Dark Matter and Dar…”
BackgroundThe Rotation of Spiral Galaxies
Rubin, V. C. (1983) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.220.4604.1339 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Lyman α forest and non-linear structure characterization in Fuzzy Dark Matter cosmologies
Nori, M., Murgia, R., Iršič, V., Baldi, M., & Viel, M. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2888 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“…as e.g. the inner dynamics of galaxy clusters (Zwicky 1937; Clowe et al. 2006) and the rotation curves of spiral galaxies (Rubin, Ford & Thonnard 1980; Bosma 1981; Persic, Salucci & Stel 1996), but also to the gravitational impact on the underlying geometry of space– time, as strong gravitational…”
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The Planetary Nebula Spectrograph elliptical galaxy survey: the dark matter in NGC 4494
Napolitano, N. R., Romanowsky, A. J., Coccato, L., Capaccioli, M., Douglas, N. G., Noordermeer, E., Gerhard, O., Arnaboldi, M., Lorenzi, F. D., Kuijken, K. H., et al. (2009) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14053.x · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“…sort of dark matter (DM) dominates the mass of the universe arose primarily in the 1970s from observations of the outer kinematics of spiral galaxies (Freeman 1970; Ostriker & Peebles 1973; Rubin et al. 1978; Bosma 1981), and is now well established on cosmological grounds (Hinshaw et al. 2008).”
BackgroundWarp, waves, and wrinkles in the Milky Way
Schönrich, R. A., & Dehnen, W. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1256 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“1 IN T RO D U C T I O N The majority of spiral galaxies have at least some warps in their outer gas disc (Bosma 1978, 1981).”
BackgroundObserving the dark matter density profile of isolated galaxiesPreprint
Prada, F., Vitvitska, M., Klypin, A., et al. (2003) · Cited by 128 · see citing works
DWARF GALAXY DARK MATTER DENSITY PROFILES INFERRED FROM STELLAR AND GAS KINEMATICS
Adams, J. J., Simon, J. D., Fabricius, M., van den Bosch, R. C. E., Barentine, J. C., Bender, R., Gebhardt, K., Hill, G. J., Murphy, J. D., Swaters, R. A., et al. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/789/1/63 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“Several following works (Roberts & Whitehurst 1975; Bosma 1978; Rubin et al. 1978a,b, 1980; Bosma 1981a,b) strengthened the case for DM in disky galaxies to the point of scientific consensus.”
BackgroundA Comprehensive Catalog of Dark Matter Halo Models for SPARC Galaxies
Li, P., Lelli, F., McGaugh, S., & Schombert, J. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab700e · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“Rotation curves reveal a discrepancy between dynamically determined and optically measured masses of galaxies (Rubin et al. 1978; Bosma 1981; van Albada et al. 1985).”
The constant-density region of the dark haloes of spiral galaxies
Salucci, P. (2001) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04076.x · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Ritondale, E., Vegetti, S., Despali, G., Auger, M. W., Koopmans, L. V. E., & McKean, J. P. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz464 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“As much as 85 per cent of the matter content of the Universe is made of an unknown elusive component known as dark matter, and its nature represents one of the most long-standing and most studied problems in physics (Bosma 1981; Rubin et al. 1985; Frenk & White 2012).”
BackgroundMartinsson, T. P. K., Verheijen, M. A. W., Westfall, K. B., Bershady, M. A., Schechtman-Rook, A., Andersen, D. R., & Swaters, R. A. (2013) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220515 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“…Hispano Alemán (CAHA) at Calar Alto, operated jointly by the MaxPlanck Institut für Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Andalucı́a (CSIC) ⋆⋆ National Science Foundation (USA) International ResearchFellow Roberts 1966; Rogstad & Shostak 1972; Bosma 1978, 1981a,b; Rubin et al. 1980).”
MethodVelocity dispersion around ellipticals in MOND
Tiret, O., Combes, F., Angus, G. W., et al. (2007) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078569 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“…very clear around spiral galaxies, thanks to their rotation curve measured with the cold hydrogen gas at 21cm, which is nearly in circular orbits (e.g. Bosma 1981, Verheijen & Sancisi 2001), the situation is much more complex around elliptical galaxies, with little or no rotation.”
BackgroundParametrized post-Einsteinian gravitational waveforms in various modified theories of gravity
Tahura, S., & Yagi, K. (2018) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.98.084042 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Luminous and dark matter in the Milky Way
Olling, R. P., & Merrifield, M. R. (2001) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04581.x · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“The observational fact that rotation curves of external galaxies are rather flat in their outer parts (Rubin, Ford & Thonnard 1980; Bosma 1981; Kent 1987; Begeman 1987; Casertano & van Gorkom 1991; Broeils 1992; Persic, Salucci & Stel 1996) indicates the presence of unseen matter in those galaxies‡.”
BackgroundSecular evolution in disk galaxies
Kormendy, J. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547420.003 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Are Seyfert Narrow‐Line Regions Powered by Radio Jets?
Bicknell, G. V., Dopita, M. A., Tsvetanov, Z. I., et al. (1998) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/305336 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“These densities are typical of those inferred for the disk ISM in the inner regions of spiral galaxies (e.g., That is, for any rea-Wevers 1984 ; Bosma 1981). sonable density proÐle, energy Ñuxes in the range of 1043È1044 ergs s~1 and dynamical ages D106 yr, we have an implied range of densities…”
BackgroundUnravelling the mystery of the M31 bar
Athanassoula, E., & Beaton, R. L. (2006) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10567.x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“A telltale sign for the existence of a bar or of an oval is the fact that the kinematical and photometric minor axes do not align (Bosma 1978, 1981).”
The Rotation Velocity Attributable to Dark Matter at Intermediate Radii in Disk Galaxies
McGaugh, S. S., de Blok, W. J. G., Schombert, J. M., de Naray, R. K., & Kim, J. H. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/511807 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“The rotation curves of spiral galaxies provide one of the strongest lines of evidence establishing the need for dark matter in the universe (e.g., Rubin, Thonnard & Ford 1980; Bosma 1981).”
BackgroundThe DiskMass Survey. VII. The distribution of luminous and dark matter in spiral galaxies
Martinsson, T. P. K., Verheijen, M. A. W., Westfall, K. B., Bershady, M. A., Andersen, D. R., & Swaters, R. A. (2013) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1308.0336 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“However, even though it has now been shown that a more or less flat rotation curve seems to be a general feature of spiral galaxies (e.g., Bosma 1978, 1981a,b; Begeman 1987, 1989; Sofue et al. 1999; Sofue & Rubin 2001), and although the concept of a dark-matter Appendix is available in electronic…”
BackgroundGalaxy Halo Masses from Galaxy‐Galaxy Lensing
Wilson, G., Kaiser, N., Luppino, G. A., et al. (2001) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/321441 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Spiral galaxy HI rotation curves (Bosma 1981) extend this and indicateM ∝ r out to tens of kpc. Relative motions of faint satellites (Bahcall & Tremaine 1981; Zaritsky et al. 1997) or pairs of galaxies (Turner 1976; Jing, Mo, & Boerner 1998) analyzed statistically extend this to larger scales, and…”
BackgroundDark Matters on the Scale of Galaxies
Martino, I. D., Chakrabarty, S. S., Cesare, V., Gallo, A., Ostorero, L., & Diaferio, A. (2020) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe6080107 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“We thus observe a fairly flat rotation curve for most disk galaxies [100, 101].”
BackgroundCosmology and Particle Physics
Turner, M. S. (1988) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-4015-4_2 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
A Virgo high-resolution Hα kinematical survey — II. The Atlas
Chemin, L., Balkowski, C., Cayatte, V., et al. (2006) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09899.x · Cited by 91 · see citing works
THE DISKMASS SURVEY. II. ERROR BUDGET
Bershady, M. A., Verheijen, M. A. W., Westfall, K. B., Andersen, D. R., Swaters, R. A., & Martinsson, T. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/716/1/234 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“This is not unlike the conspiracy first noted by Bosma (1981) between the mass of the H I disk and that required to make the observed rotation curve flat (explored more recently by, e.g., Hoekstra et al. 2001, and references therein).”
BackgroundBaudis, L. (2016) · Journal of Physics G Nuclear and Particle Physics · doi:10.1088/0954-3899/43/4/044001 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
The dark matter problem: a historical perspective
(2011) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.48-4453 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
AX-GADGET: a new code for cosmological simulations of Fuzzy Dark Matter and Axion models
Nori, M., & Baldi, M. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1224 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“…– as e.g. the inner dynamics of galaxy clusters (Zwicky 1937; Clowe et al. 2006), the rotation curves of spiral galaxies (Rubin et al. 1980; Bosma 1981; Persic et al. 1996), the strong gravitational lensing of individual massive objects (Koopmans & Treu 2003) as well as the weak…”
BackgroundNeutral Hydrogen and Star Formation in the Irregular Galaxy NGC 2366
Hunter, D. A., Elmegreen, B. G., & van Woerden, H. C. (2001) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/321611 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the distortion in the velocity Ðeld is not the S-shape of a warp (Bosma 1981).”
BackgroundA Search for Kinematic Evidence of Radial Gas Flows in Spiral Galaxies
Wong, T., Blitz, L., & Bosma, A. (2004) · HAL (Le Centre pour la Communication Scientifique Directe) · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationStatus, Challenges and Directions in Indirect Dark Matter Searches
Heros, C. P. D. L. (2020) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym12101648 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“The velocities of these large gravitational systems were measured to be incompatible with the expectations based on Newtonian mechanics and the visible amount of matter in the system [1–3].”
MethodAxion-like relics: new constraints from old comagnetometer data
Bloch, I. M., Hochberg, Y., Kuflik, E., et al. (2020) · Journal of High Energy Physics · doi:10.1007/jhep01(2020)167 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Moretti, A., Paladino, R., Poggianti, B. M., D’Onofrio, M., Bettoni, D., Gullieuszik, M., Jaffé, Y. L., Vulcani, B., Fasano, G., Fritz, J., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2021 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“In normal galaxies the molecular gas tends to be concentrated in the central regions, displaying a surface density decreasing with radius (Young & Scoville 1991; Wong & Blitz 2002), while HI disks seem to be much more extended than the optical ones (Bosma 1981).”
BackgroundGalactic rotation curves, the baryon-to-dark-halo-mass relation and space–time scale invariance
Wu, X., & Kroupa, P. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2099 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“The observation that the rotation curves of galaxies deviate from the expected Keplerian decline by being essentially flat at large radii, r (Rubin & Ford 1970; Bosma 1981; Rubin et al. 1982), i.e. that the circular velocities of galaxies obey vcirc ≈ constant, is therefore a very major discovery.”
BackgroundOn the apparent coupling of neutral hydrogen and dark matter in spiral galaxies
Hoekstra, H., van Albada, T. S., & Sancisi, R. (2001) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04214.x · Cited by 80 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bosma, A.
- Corresponding author
- Bosma, A.
- ORCID
- Bosma, A.
- Venue
- The Astronomical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 1981-12
- Volume
- 86
- Pages
- 1825
- ISSN
- 0004-6256 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2002592779
- Cited by
- 612
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 8.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Astronomical Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- spiral galaxies, neutral hydrogen, 21 cm line emission, HI velocity field, rotation curves
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