Evidence for the Existence of Three Primary Strategies in Plants and Its Relevance to Ecological and Evolutionary Theory

“Other germination cues, such as the response to diurnal alternating temperatures (Thompson and Grime, 1977) and the need for light or darkness (Carta et al., 2017), allow for a fine-scale detection of germination micro-niches and safe sites (Jumpponen et al., 1999).”

“At the plant community scale and in agreement with plant strategy theories (CSR model, Grime 1977; LHS model, Westoby 1998), other studies have also found a second axis of specialization based on plant size (Grime et al .”

“…which vary in frequency (Iftekhar, 1999), magnitude, intensity, and timing, constitutes natural disturbance (Cattelino et al., 1979; Connell and Slatyer, 1977; Grime, 1977; Holling, 1981; Levin and Pain, 1974; Loucks, 1970; Shugart and West, 1980; Trudgill, 1977; Vogl, 1980; White, 1979).”

“Journal of Applied Ecology © 2013 British Ecological Society, Journal of Applied Ecology, 50, 740–747 (Grime 1977); however, to our knowledge, this has not yet been linked to survival of sediment disturbance.”

“…view was later extended to triangular continu-ums of plant life-history strategies with the well-known competitive ability— physiological tolerance to stress— adaptation to disturbance (C- S-R) schema introduced by Grime (1977) and the leaf- height-seed (LHS) framework by Westoby (1998).”

“It is already known that the addition of fertilizers 2016 The Authors New Phytologist 2016 New Phytologist Trust New Phytologist (2016) 210: 1195–1206 www.newphytologist.com New Phytologist Research 1199 favours plants with a competitive strategy (Grime, 1977).”

“According to CSR theory (Grime, 1977) and its underlying premise of trade‐offs in resource allocation (Lambers & Poorter, 1992; Lambers, Poorter, & Van Vuuren, 1998), the increased selection away from R in adults relative to juveniles suggests a greater investment in growth rate during early stages…”

“Life history trade-offs play a central role in succession as early successional plants feature adaptations to the rapid colonization of disturbed lands such as fast growth, early maturation, and heavy allocation to reproduction (Grime 1977, Van Kleunen et al. 2010).”

“In these respects, they are archetypal fast-growing species adapted to abundant resource supply (Grime 1977; Reich et al. 1997; Aerts & Chapin 2000; McGlone et al. 2004) that capitalize on rapid height growth to compete asymmetrically with neighbours for light (Weiner 1984; Lusk & Matus 2000).”

“Four decades have passed since Grime (1977) suggested the existence of three primary strategies in vascular plants, according to which low stress with low disturbance generates competitive plants; high stress with low disturbance generates stress-tolerant plants; and low stress with high…”

“This pattern is consistent with Grime's (Grime, 1977) model of community development under differing levels of productivity.”

“Short generation times allow rapid exploitation of colonization opportunities due to grazing disturbance (Grime 1977).”

“One possibility is to estimate the harshness of environmental stress by the performance (e.g. mortality, growth or productivity) of each target species, not by the direct measurement of environmental conditions themselves (Grime 1977; Underwood 1989; Goldberg et al. Proc.”

“The analysis of the CSR (C—competitors, S—stress-tolerators, R—ruderals) functional strategy of Grime, 1974, Grime, 1977, Grime, 2001 of the two varieties of Cannabis sativa L. was performed according to the method proposed by Pierce et al. (2017).”

“…plants characteristic of low- and high-resource environments, respectively, evolved a common set of traits linking exploitation (root:shoot, tissue turnover, and concentration of plant defences) with growth (resource uptake and growth rates; Grime, 1977; Chapin et al., 1993; Bardgett et al., 2014).”

“…leave little room for light partitioning from other species because they are highly resistant to invasion, probably a result of high competitive ability for light and the ability to hoard and retain resources from year to year within perennating tissues (Grime 1977; Hutchings & Bradbury 1986).”

“The ability to tolerate stress is thought to be important (Grime, 1977), whereby the sequence of species in a succession is largely determined by the life history characteristics of the plants [e.”

“However, Silvertown and Franco (1994) found that elasticity analysis did predict successional trajectories in G-L-F space similar to those predicted by Grime (1977) in C-S-R space.”

“Thus, these nutrient-enriched plots were dominated by competitive and ruderal species well adapted to habitats of high fertility (Grime 1977, Chapin 1980).”

“For example, while a physical condition (e.g. shade) can cause ‘stress’ that suppresses an organism’s potential for growth or precludes it from an assemblage (Grime 1977), it may represent a facilitator to other organisms (e.g. shade-tolerant organisms).”

“Stress tolerance and competitive ability often trade off between species (Grime 1977) and can also exhibit trade-offs among genotypes intraspecifically (He et al. 2010, Stanton et al. 2004).”

“…of plants in many vegetation types after disturbances, which shows a trend of early successional species having more persistent soil seed banks than late successional species (Grime, 1977, 1989; Thompson and Grime, 1979; Garwood, 1989; Butler and Chazdon, 1998; Grandin, 2001; Hopfensberger, 2007).”

“The prevalence of A. byssoides s. lato, T. sublilacina and T. fibrillosa1 in both early and late successional habitats suggests a competitive strategy (cf. Grime, 1977).”

“Disturbance (sensu Grime, 1977, 1979)is a sudden high level of external dynamics, which, if high enough, can lead to the death of the population(s) involved. If the decrease in external dynamics proceeds very rapidly, as was actually the case in the outer dunes, or almost at once, as was the case in the major part of…”

“Competitive interactions are strongly affected by resource gradients ( Grime 1977; Tilman 1988).”

“Ruderal species, characterized as fast growing with early reproduction and a high annual seed production (Grime 1977; Rørslett 1989), tend to have multiple propagating strategies to increase the likelihood of individual persistence and population viability (Tazik et al.”

“This observation likely reflects the different life history strategies of these species ( Grime 1977; Davis 1994); cattail has higher nutrient requirements, has lower nutrient resorption efficiency (Richardson et al. 1999), and decomposes more rapidly compared with sawgrass and spikerush (Davis”

“Species from infertile soils tend to have the following characteristics: a low relative growth rate, low photosynthetic rates, low absorption rates, high root:shoot ratio, prolonged seasonal growth, maintenance of inorganic P reserves, increased rate of luxury consumption and relatively more reabsorption of N precedin…”

“Functional and ecological traits of organisms have long been used to predict the outcome of biotic interactions (Grime, 1977; Gross et al., 2009) and, recently, traits have been used to explain microbial life history, niche and diversity patterns (Chagnon et al., 2013; Aguilar-Trigueros et al.,…”

“…that competition does not occur at all in deserts (Shreve 1942; Went 1955) or that the competition is less important in such ‘high stress’ habitats (Grime 1977), recent results show that competition among plants is both common and readily detected in deserts and in dry grassland (Fowler 1986).”

“…number of models have been developed to understand the adaptive significance of life-history traits from the selective pressures of the environment (Grime, 1977; Correspondence: Aurélie Blanck, CEMAGREF, Laboratoire d’Hydroécologie Quantitative, Biologie des Ecosystèmes Aquatiques, 3 bis Quai…”

“More recently, microbial ecologists have also begun to apply Grime’s triangle of plant competitor-stress tolerator-ruderal (CSR) strategies to microbial systems (Grime, 1977; Krause et al., 2014; Fierer, 2017).”

“Strategy type Plant strategy categories (C, R, S, CR, CS, RS, CRS; Grime 1977).”

“sensitivity of vegetative communities to different types of disturbance (47, 49).”

“[24] to locate the cover crop species on the CSR space [11] and characterize differences in their ecological strategies.”

“plants adapted to high disturbance and low stress levels (Grime, 1977).”

“Effect of pulse frequency and total resource quantity on competitive hierarchies Consistency of competitive hierarchies between environments is an important distinction between alternative models of community structure (Grime 1977 vs. Tilman 1988, 1990).”

“Ecologists appear in general agreement that competition has the potential to influence local plant species abundance, as reflected by the many models of the influence of competition on plant community structure (e.g., Grime 1977, Tilman 1982, 1990, Warner and Chesson 1985, Keddy 1990).”

“These results are also consistent with the suggestion (Grime 1977, 1979) that competition is less important in structuring communities under stressful environments, including conditions of low nutrient availability, such as are seen in the Arctic.”

“A rather different approach is taken by Grime (1977, 1979) , who recognises three factors: disturbance, stress, and competition, the effects of which are modified by the general level of production.”

“…journal,Maestre et al. (2009) convincingly argue that consideration of the life history of interacting species (competitor versus stress tolerant, sensu Grime (1977)) and differentiating between types of stressors (resource versus non-resource based) is needed to refine the predictions of the SGH.”

“S axis of CSR theory (Grime 1977)).”

“Slow growth is often thought to evolve in response to environmental stressors such as food limitation (Grime and Hunt 1975; Grime 1977; Winemiller and Rose 1992).”

“Trait-based frameworks adapted from plant ecology 24 – 26 are increasingly applied in microbial ecology to distill the compositional and functional complexity of microbial communities, and to link microbial identity to emergent ecosystem functions, including SOM formation 27,28 .”

“In fact, early germination inevitably carries risks associated with the possibility that those environmental conditions that have promoted germination might not signal the actual beginning of suitable conditions for growth and development (Fenner and Thompson 2005; Grime 1977; Wainwright et al.”

“If, as some researchers suggest (e.g., Boyer and Wheeler 1989), nutrient levels are low in fens, this may prevent dominance by a single or few species (Grime 1977).”

“Although a number of definitions, conceptual frameworks, and theories have been developed (e.g., Clements 1916, Grime 1977, Sousa 1984, White and Pickett 1985), the most commonly used definition by ecologists is: ‘‘any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem, community or…”

“…are hypothesised to have adaptations suited for resource conservation rather than acquisition (Reich et al. 1999), and are thus believed to be limited to resource-poor habitats as they cannot compete with strong resource-acquiring common species in nutrient-rich habitats (Drury 1974; Grime 1977).”

“…the amount of energy that a plant allocates should represent an optimal strategy given the local biotic and abiotic conditions, such as climate, soil resources and composition, and the abundance of attackers and their impacts on plant fitness (Grime 1977, Herms and Mattson 1992, Züst et al. 2012).”