The Limiting Effects of Dust in Brown Dwarf Model Atmospheres
Open accessAbstract
We present opacity sampling model atmospheres, synthetic spectra, and colors for brown dwarfs and very low mass stars in the following two limiting cases of dust grain formation: (1) Inefficient gravitational settling (i.e., the dust is distributed according to the chemical equilibrium predictions) and (2) efficient gravitational settling (i.e., the dust forms and depletes refractory elements from the gas, but their opacity does not affect the thermal structure). The models include the formation of over 600 gas-phase species and 1000 liquids and crystals and the opacities of 30 different types of grains including corundum (Al 2 O 3 ), the magnesium aluminum spinel MgAl 2 O 4 , iron, enstatite (MgSiO 3 ), forsterite (Mg 2 SiO 4 ), amorphous carbon, SiC, and a number of calcium silicates. The models extend from the beginning of the grain formation regime well into the condensation regime of water ice ( T eff = 3000-100 K) and encompass the range of log g = 2.5-6.0 at solar metallicity. We find that silicate dust grains can form abundantly in the outer atmospheric layers of red and brown dwarfs with a spectral type later than M8. The greenhouse effects of dust opacities provide a natural explanation for the peculiarly red spectroscopic distribution of the latest M dwarfs and young brown dwarfs. The grainless (cond) models, on the other hand, correspond closely to methane brown dwarfs such as Gliese 229B. We also discover that the λλ5891, 5897 Na I D and λλ7687, 7701 K I resonance doublets play a critical role in T dwarfs, in which their red wings define the pseudocontinuum from the I to the Z bandpass.
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Self-citationModules for Experiments in Stellar Astrophysics (MESA)Preprint
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Self-citationTheoretical isochrones in several photometric systems
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Evolutionary models for cool brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets. The case of HD 209458
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Self-citationAngular Differential Imaging: A Powerful High‐Contrast Imaging Technique
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Models of very-low-mass stars, brown dwarfs and exoplanets
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The Evolution of L and T Dwarfs in Color‐Magnitude Diagrams
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An Infrared Spectroscopic Sequence of M, L, and T Dwarfs
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Evolutionary models for low-mass stars and brown dwarfs: Uncertainties and limits at very young ages
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Self-citationAstrometry and Photometry for Cool Dwarfs and Brown Dwarfs
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VOSA: virtual observatory SED analyzer
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Self-citationA Census of the Young Cluster IC 348
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Two accreting protoplanets around the young star PDS 70
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The interiors of giant planets: Models and outstanding questions.
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L′ andM′ Photometry of Ultracool Dwarfs
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A Unified Near‐Infrared Spectral Classification Scheme for T Dwarfs
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Toward Spectral Classification of L and T Dwarfs: Infrared and Optical Spectroscopy and Analysis
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NEGLECTED CLOUDS IN T AND Y DWARF ATMOSPHERES
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Rotation and Activity in Mid‐M to L Field Dwarfs
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The prevalence of dust on the exoplanet HD 189733b from Hubble and Spitzer observations
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A Census of the Young Cluster IC 348Preprint
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The Interiors of Giant Planets: Models and Outstanding QuestionsPreprint
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A Survey and Analysis of Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph Spectra of T Tauri Stars in Taurus
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Simulations of stellar convection with CO5BOLD
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L and T Dwarf Models and the L to T Transition
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Clouds and Chemistry: Ultracool Dwarf Atmospheric Properties from Optical and Infrared Colors
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The donor stars of cataclysmic variables
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A new set of atmosphere and evolution models for cool T–Y brown dwarfs and giant exoplanets
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CLOUDS AND CHEMISTRY IN THE ATMOSPHERE OF EXTRASOLAR PLANET HR8799b
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The NIRSPEC Brown Dwarf Spectroscopic Survey. I. Low‐Resolution Near‐Infrared Spectra
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Evolutionary stellar population synthesis at high spectral resolution: optical wavelengths
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SUPER-EARTH ATMOSPHERES: SELF-CONSISTENT GAS ACCRETION AND RETENTION
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Infrared Photometry of Late‐M, L, and T Dwarfs
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COMPOSITIONAL DIVERSITY IN THE ATMOSPHERES OF HOT NEPTUNES, WITH APPLICATION TO GJ 436b
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Photometric characterization of exoplanets using angular and spectral differential imaging
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WEATHER ON OTHER WORLDS. II. SURVEY RESULTS: SPOTS ARE UBIQUITOUS ON L AND T DWARFS
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POPULATION PROPERTIES OF BROWN DWARF ANALOGS TO EXOPLANETS*
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MASSES, RADII, AND CLOUD PROPERTIES OF THE HR 8799 PLANETS
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The infra-red dual imaging and spectrograph for SPHERE: design and performance
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The First Direct Measurements of Surface Magnetic Fields on Very Low Mass Stars
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Comparative Planetary Atmospheres: Models of TrES-1 and HD 209458b
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FINGERING CONVECTION AND CLOUDLESS MODELS FOR COOL BROWN DWARF ATMOSPHERES
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Equilibrium chemistry down to 100 K
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L and T Dwarf Models and the L to T TransitionPreprint
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Evidence of Cloud Disruption in the L/T Dwarf Transition
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DIRECT IMAGING OF A COLD JOVIAN EXOPLANET IN ORBIT AROUND THE SUN-LIKE STAR GJ 504
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VOSA: Virtual Observatory SED Analyzer. An application to the Collinder 69 open clusterPreprint
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Self-citationChromospheric Activity, Rotation, and Rotational Braking in M and L Dwarfs
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The SPHERE infrared survey for exoplanets (SHINE)
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Infrared Parallaxes for Methane T Dwarfs
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Infrared spectroscopy of substellar objects in Orion
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Self-citationThe Donor Stars of Cataclysmic VariablesPreprint
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EVIDENCE FOR MAGNETIC FLUX SATURATION IN RAPIDLY ROTATING M STARS
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Revealing galaxy candidates out to z ∼ 16 with JWST observations of the lensing cluster SMACS0723
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HST SPECTRAL MAPPING OF L/T TRANSITION BROWN DWARFS REVEALS CLOUD THICKNESS VARIATIONS
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DENSITY AND ECCENTRICITY OF<i>KEPLER</i>PLANETS
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Evidence for a co-moving sub-stellar companion of GQ Lup
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Self-citationThe effective temperature scale of M dwarfs
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Self-citationA Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph Spectral Sequence of M, L, and T Dwarfs
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On the Cool Side: Modeling the Atmospheres of Brown Dwarfs and Giant Planets
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Retrieving scattering clouds and disequilibrium chemistry in the atmosphere of HR 8799e
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DETECTING PLANETS AROUND VERY LOW MASS STARS WITH THE RADIAL VELOCITY METHOD
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QUANTITATIVELY ASSESSING THE ROLE OF CLOUDS IN THE TRANSMISSION SPECTRUM OF GJ 1214b
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Discovery of a Very Young Field L Dwarf, 2MASS J01415823−4633574
Kirkpatrick, J. D., Barman, T., Burgasser, A. J., McGovern, M. R., McLean, I. S., Tinney, C. G., & Lowrance, P. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/499622 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Strubbe, L. E., & Chiang, E. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/505736 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
A comparison of chemistry and dust cloud formation in ultracool dwarf model atmospheres
Helling, C., Ackerman, A. S., Allard, F. C., Dehn, M., Hauschildt, P. H., Homeier, D., Lodders, K., Marley, M. S., Rietmeijer, F. J. M., Tsuji, T., et al. (2008) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13991.x · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Self-citationSpiral Structure in the Circumstellar Disk around AB Aurigae
Fukagawa, M., Hayashi, M., Tamura, M., Itoh, Y., Hayashi, S. S., Oasa, Y., Takeuchi, T., Morino, J., Murakawa, K., Oya, S., et al. (2004) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/420699 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
WATER CLOUDS IN Y DWARFS AND EXOPLANETS
Morley, C. V., Marley, M. S., Fortney, J. J., Lupu, R., Saumon, D., Greene, T., & Lodders, K. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/787/1/78 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Mollière, P., van Boekel, R., Dullemond, C. P., Henning, T. K., & Mordasini, C. (2015) · doi:10.7892/boris.81944 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY OF THE EXTRASOLAR PLANET HR 8799 b
Bowler, B. P., Liu, M. C., Dupuy, T. J., & Cushing, M. C. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/723/1/850 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
- Authors
- Allard, F., Hauschildt, P. H., Alexander, D. R., Tamanai, A., & Schweitzer, A.
- Affiliations
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon (FR)
- University of Georgia (US)
- Wichita State University (US)
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2001-07-20
- Volume
- 556
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 357-372
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2001265656
- Cited by
- 1,062
- References
- 97
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 52 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 68 · 2012: 44
- FWCI
- 26.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NAG58425, NAG53435)
- Wichita State University
- San Diego Supercomputer Center
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
- Office of Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Keywords
- brown dwarfs, very low mass stars, dust formation, gravitational settling, opacity, model atmospheres, silicate dust grains, greenhouse effect, T dwarfs, M dwarfs, Na I D lines, synthetic spectra, color
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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