Exploration of the effectiveness of social distancing on respiratory pathogen transmission implicates environmental contributions
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: In both military and civilian settings, transmission of respiratory pathogens may be due to person-to-person and environmental contributions. This possibility was explored in a military training setting, where rates of febrile respiratory illness (FRI) often reach epidemic levels. METHODS: Population size and FRI rates were monitored over 10 months in the units of 50-90 individuals. Some units were open to the influx of potentially infectious convalescents (hereafter referred to as "open units," and some were closed to such an influx (hereafter referred to as "closed units"). Virologic testing and polymerase chain reaction analysis were used to detect adenovirus on surface structures. RESULTS: The odds ratio (OR) associated with FRI in closed units, compared with open units, was 1.13 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.99-1.28). The OR in units with a population greater than the median size, compared with units with a population lower than the median size was 1.38 (95% CI, 1.23-1.55). Between 5% and 9% of surface samples obtained from selected units harbored viable adenovirus. CONCLUSIONS: FRI rates were not reduced in units that were closed to potentially contagious individuals. These findings imply that the primary source of the pathogen is likely environmental rather than human, and they underscore what is known about other virus types. Diligence in identifying the relative roles of different transmission routes is suggested for civilian settings similar to those described in the current study.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Transmission of respiratory viruses is likely highly complex, dependent on multiple host, virus and environmental factors.
“In addition, transmission of respiratory viruses is likely highly complex, dependent on multiple host, virus and environmental factors, plus the myriad of interactions between these factors, which may influence the predominant modes of transmission in any given setting (Broderick 2008; Hendley 1988; Kutter 2018; Leung 2021).”
From Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses (2023) · cites this paper as Broderick 2008
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Sehulster, L. M., & Chinn, R. Y. W. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 1,417 · see citing works
Weinstein, R. A., & Hota, B. N. (2004) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/424667 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
Significance of Fomites in the Spread of Respiratory and Enteric Viral Disease
Boone, S. A., & Gerba, C. P. (2007) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.02051-06 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
Survival of Influenza Viruses on Environmental Surfaces
Bean, B., Moore, B. M., Sterner, B., Peterson, L. R., Gerding, D. N., & Balfour, H. H. (1982) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/146.1.47 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Targeted Social Distancing Designs for Pandemic Influenza
Glass, R. J., Glass, L. M., Beyeler, W., & Min, H. J. (2006) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid1211.060255 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
Survival of enteric viruses on environmental fomites
Abad, F. X., Pintó, R. M., & Bosch, A. (1994) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.60.10.3704-3710.1994 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
WORLDWIDE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF HUMAN ADENOVIRUS INFECTIONS
SCHMTTZ, H., Wigand, R., & Heinrich, W. (1983) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113563 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
How Contagious Are Common Respiratory Tract Infections?
Musher, D. M. (2003) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmra021771 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Quantifying social distancing arising from pandemic influenza
Caley, P. A., Philp, D. J., & McCracken, K. (2007) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2007.1197 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Relation of the Inanimate Hospital Environment to Endemic Nosocomial Infection
Maki, D. G., Alvarado, C. J., Hassemer, C. A., & Zilz, M. A. (1982) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm198212163072507 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Spread and prevention of some common viral infections in community facilities and domestic homes
Barker, J. R., Stevens, D., & Bloomfield, S. F. (2001) · Journal of Applied Microbiology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01364.x · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Ansari, S. A., Springthorpe, V. S., Sattar, S. A., Rivard, S., & Rahman, M. (1991) · Journal of Clinical Microbiology · doi:10.1128/jcm.29.10.2115-2119.1991 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus on Hospital Surfaces
Dowell, S. F., Simmerman, J. M., Erdman, D. D., Wu, J.-S. J., Chaovavanich, A., Javadi, M., Yang, J., Anderson, L. J., Tong, S., & Ho, M. S. (2004) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/422652 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Transmission of viral respiratory infections in the home
Goldmann, D. A. (2000) · The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal · doi:10.1097/00006454-200010001-00002 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Nosocomial Spread of Viral Disease
Aitken, C., & Jeffries, D. J. (2001) · Clinical Microbiology Reviews · doi:10.1128/cmr.14.3.528-546.2001 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
The occurrence of influenza A virus on household and day care center fomites
Boone, S. A., & Gerba, C. P. (2004) · Journal of Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2004.09.011 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Crowding: risk factor or protective factor for lower respiratory disease in young children?
Cardoso, M. R. A., Cousens, S. N., de Góes Siqueira, L. F., Alves, F. M., & D'Angelo, L. A. V. (2004) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-4-19 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Ryan, M. A. K., Christian, R. S., & Wohlrabe, J. (2001) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(01)00323-3 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Abrupt Emergence of Diverse Species B Adenoviruses at US Military Recruit Training Centers
Metzgar, D., Osuna, M., Kajon, A. E., et al. (2007) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/522970 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Survival and disinfection of parainfluenza viruses on environmental surfaces
Brady, M. T., Evans, J., & Cuartas, J. (1990) · American Journal of Infection Control · doi:10.1016/0196-6553(90)90206-8 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Molecular Epidemiology of Adenovirus Type 7 in the United States, 1966–20001
Erdman, D. D., Xu, W., Gerber, S. I., et al. (2002) · Emerging infectious diseases · doi:10.3201/eid0803.010190 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Vaccine-preventable adenoviral respiratory illness in US military recruits, 1999–2004☆
Russell, K. L., Hawksworth, A. W., Ryan, M. A. K., et al. (2006) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.12.062 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citationPotential Role of Fomites in the Vehicular Transmission of Human Astroviruses
Abad, F. X., Villena, C., Guix, S., et al. (2001) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.67.9.3904-3907.2001 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Russell, K. L., Broderick, M. P., Franklin, S. E., Blyn, L. B., Freed, N. E., Moradi, E. K., Ecker, D. J., Kammerer, P. E., Osuna, M., Kajon, A. E., et al. (2006) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/507426 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationRespiratory effects and arsenic contaminated well water in Bangladesh
Milton, A. H., & Rahman, M. (2002) · International Journal of Environmental Health Research · doi:10.1080/09603120220129346 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
ACUTE RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN MILITARY TRAINEES
Dudding, B. A., Top, F. H., Winter, P. E., et al. (1973) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a121499 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Aerosol Stability of Three Acute Respiratory Disease Viruses
MILLER, W., & Artenstein, M. S. (1967) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.3181/00379727-125-32054 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Kajon, A. E., Moseley, J. M., Metzgar, D., et al. (2007) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/518442 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Gerber, S. I., Erdman, D. D., Pur, S., et al. (2001) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/319210 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Morris, R. D., & Munasinghe, R. L. (1994) · CHEST Journal · doi:10.1378/chest.106.4.1172 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Gross, P. A. (1988) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.148.3.559 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Sánchez, J. L., Binn, L. N., Innis, B. L., et al. (2001) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.2095 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Indoor Air Pollution and Asthma in Hospitalized Children in a Tropical Environment
Azizi, B. H. O., Zulkifli, H. I., & Kasim, M. S. (1995) · Journal of Asthma · doi:10.3109/02770909409077752 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Feikin, D. R., Moroney, J. F., Talkington, D. F., Thacker, W. L., Code, J., Schwartz, L. A., Erdman, D. D., Butler, J. C., & Cetron, M. S. (1999) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/313500 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Molecular Analysis of Adenovirus Isolates from Vaccinated and Unvaccinated Young Adults
Blasiole, D. A., Metzgar, D., Daum, L. T., et al. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Microbiology · doi:10.1128/jcm.42.4.1686-1693.2004 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Echavarría, M., Kolavic, S. A., Cersovsky, S. B., Mitchell, F., Sánchez, J. L., Polyak, C. S., Innis, B. L., & Binn, L. N. (2000) · Journal of Clinical Microbiology · doi:10.1128/jcm.38.8.2982-2984.2000 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Occurrence of Adenovirus Infections in Civilian Populations
Jordan, W. S. (1958) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.1958.00260130068006 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Selected nonvaccine interventions to prevent infectious acute respiratory disease
Lee, T., Jordan, N. N., Sanchez, J. L., & Gaydos, J. C. (2005) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.12.010 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Epidemiology and Prevention of Acute Respiratory Disease in Naval Recruits
Arlander, T. R., PIERCE, W. E., Edwards, E. A., et al. (1965) · American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.55.1.67 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Outbreak of adenoviral infections in a long-term paediatric facility, New Jersey, 1986/87
Porter, J., Teter, M. J., Traister, V., Pizzuti, W., Parkin, W. E., & Farrell, J. B. (1991) · Journal of Hospital Infection · doi:10.1016/0195-6701(91)90144-w · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Epidemiology. Historical and Experimental
Emerson, H. (1933) · American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.23.2.182-b · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Outbreak of Pharyngoconjunctival Fever at a Summer Camp—North Carolina, 1991
(1992) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1992.03480210025012 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Tumwesigire, S., & Barton, T. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 18 · see citing works
LARGE-VOLUME AIR SAMPLING FOR MENINGOCOCCI AND ADENOVIRUSES1
Artenstein, M. S., MILLER, W. S., Lamson, T. H., et al. (1968) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120847 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Breast‐Feeding and HIV‐1 Transmission—How Risky for How Long?
John-Stewart, G. C. (2007) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/518516 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
LARGE-VOLUME AIR SAMPLING OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY DISEASE PATHOGENS1
Artenstein, M. S., MILLER, W. S., Rust, J. H., et al. (1967) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120710 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Acute Respiratory Infections in Naval Personnel
Miller, L. F. (1964) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/129.6.526 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Bernstein, S. H. (1957) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a119863 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
United States Army guidelines for troop living space: a historical review.
Brodkey, C., & Jc, G. (1980) · PubMed · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Lemon, M. F., Wise, H., & Hamburger, M. (1944) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Outbreak of Pharxngoconjunctival Fever at a Summer Camp—North Carolina, 1991
Larson, E. (1992) · Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology · doi:10.1017/s0899823x00088711 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Breese BB, Stanbury J, Upham H-V, Calhoun AJ, Van Buren RL, Ken- nedy AS. Influence of crowding on respiratory illness in a large naval training station. War Medicine 1945; 7:143-6.
- Lemon HM, Wise H, Hamburger M. Bacterial content of air in army barracks: results. War Medicine 1944; 6:92-101.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Healthcare Infection Con- trol Practices Advisory Committee. Guidelines for environmental infec- tion control in health-care facilities. MMWR Recomm Rep 2003; 52:1- 42.
- Ryan MA, Christian RS, Wohlrabe J. Handwashing and respiratory ill- ness among young adults in military training. Am J Prev Med 2001; 21: 79 -83.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses
Jefferson, T., Del Mar, C. B., Dooley, L., Ferroni, E., Al-Ansary, L. A., Bawazeer, G. A., van Driel, M. L., Nair, N. S., Jones, M. A., Thorning, S., et al. (2011) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006207.pub4 · Cited by 805 · see citing works
Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses
Jefferson, T., Dooley, L., Ferroni, E., Al-Ansary, L. A., van Driel, M. L., Bawazeer, G. A., Jones, M. A., Hoffmann, T. C., Clark, J., Beller, E. M., et al. (2023) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006207.pub6 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
- Authors
- Broderick, M. P., Hansen, C. J., & Russell, K. L.
- Affiliations
- Naval Health Research Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Broderick, Michael P.
- Venue
- The Journal of Infectious Diseases
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2008-11-15
- Volume
- 198
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1420-1426
- ISSN
- 0022-1899 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-6613
- PMC
- PMC7109839
- OpenAlex
- W2104185471
- Cited by
- 24
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 3 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 3 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 2.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Journal of Infectious Diseases (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Defense
- U.S. Navy
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Infection Control and Ventilation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Respiratory viral infections research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Infection Control in Healthcare
- Keywords
- social distancing, respiratory pathogen transmission, febrile respiratory illness, adenovirus, environmental transmission, military training units, surface contamination, population size, transmission routes
- MeSH terms
- Adenovirus Infections, Human, Adult, Environment, Environmental Microbiology, Humans, Male, Military Personnel, Population Density, Respiratory Tract Infections, Logistic Models, Infection Control, Environmental Illness, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
