The DOI matches its Crossref record; 92 of the 109 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Evolution of L and T Dwarfs in Color‐Magnitude Diagrams
Open accessAbstract
We present new evolution sequences for very low mass stars, brown dwarfs, and giant planets and use them to explore a variety of influences on the evolution of these objects. While the predicted adiabatic evolution of luminosity with time is very similar to results of previous work, the remaining disagreements reveal the magnitude of current uncertainty in brown dwarf evolution theory. We discuss the sources of those differences and argue for the importance of the surface boundary condition provided by atmosphere models including clouds. The L- to T-type ultracool dwarf transition can be accommodated within the Ackerman and Marley cloud model by varying the cloud sedimentation parameter. We develop a simple model for the evolution across the L/T transition. By combining the evolution calculation and our atmosphere models, we generate colors and magnitudes of synthetic populations of ultracool dwarfs in the field and in Galactic clusters. We focus on near-infrared color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs) and on the nature of the "second parameter" that is responsible for the scatter of colors along the T eff sequence. Instead of a single second parameter we find that variations in metallicity and cloud parameters, unresolved binaries, and possibly a relatively young population all play a role in defining the spread of brown dwarfs along the cooling sequence. We also find that the transition from cloudy L dwarfs to cloudless T dwarfs slows down the evolution and causes a pileup of substellar objects in the transition region, in contradiction with previous studies. However, the same model is applied to the Pleiades brown dwarf sequence with less success. Taken at face value, the present Pleiades data suggest that the L/T transition occurs at lower T eff for lower gravity objects, such as those found in young Galactic clusters. The simulated populations of brown dwarfs also reveal that the phase of deuterium burning produces a distinctive feature in CMDs that should be detectable in ~50-100 Myr old clusters.
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“The figure shows that the mass of the secondary is substellar (below 80 M Jup for solar composition; Saumon & Marley 2008) 7 for many periods, with the exception of a region of stellar mass at 5.5 yr and 11 yr.”
From Mass and period limits on the ringed companion transiting the young star J1407 (2015) · cites this paper as Saumon & Marley 2008
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Citations
Cites
Solar System Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements
Lodders, K. (2003) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/375492 · Cited by 4,090 · cited 2×
“We use the elemental abundances of Lodders (2003).”
BackgroundMethodEvolutionary models for cool brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets. The case of HD 209458
Baraffe, I., Chabrier, G., Barman, T. S., Allard, F. C., & Hauschildt, P. H. (2003) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030252 · Cited by 1,493 · cited 2×
“Figures 2 and 3 compare our cloudless sequence with the COND03models of Baraffe et al. (2003) and our cloudy fsed ¼ 2 sequence with the DUSTY00 models of Chabrier et al. (2000b) and Baraffe et al. (2002), respectively.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA compilation of charged-particle induced thermonuclear reaction rates
Angulo, C., Arnould, M., Rayet, M., Descouvemont, P., Baye, D., Leclercq-Willain, C., Coc, A., Barhoumi, S., Aguer, P., Rolfs, C., et al. (1999) · Nuclear Physics A · doi:10.1016/s0375-9474(99)00030-5 · Cited by 1,438 · cited 1×
“3Heþ : ð5Þ We use the nuclear reaction cross sections from the NACRE database (Angulo et al. 1999) and apply the screening corrections developed by Chabrier, which include both ionic and electronic screening (Saumon et al. 1996; Chabrier & Baraffe 1997; G. Chabrier 1999, private communication).”
MethodA Nongray Theory of Extrasolar Giant Planets and Brown Dwarfs
Burrows, A. S., Marley, M. S., Hubbard, W. B., Lunine, J. I., Guillot, T., Saumon, D., Freedman, R., Sudarsky, D., & Sharp, C. M. (1997) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/305002 · Cited by 1,371 · cited 4×
“…of isolated brown dwarfs—a relatively simple case of stellar evolution—has been studied extensively for the past 20 years and is well understood (D’Antona & Mazzitelli 1985; Nelson et al. 1986; Burrows et al. 1989, 1997; Burrows & Liebert 1993; Chabrier et al. 2000a, 2000b; Baraffe et al. 2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Initial mass function and stellar birthrate in the solar neighborhood
Miller, G., & Scalo, J. (1979) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1086/190629 · Cited by 1,159 · cited 20×
“For these evolution sequences with solar metallicity atmospheres, the minimum hydrogen-burning mass, defined by objects that reach stable H burning at an age of 10 Gyr, is 0.075M , where TeA ¼ 1910 K for the cloudless sequence.”
BackgroundInfluentialBeazley, J. (n.d.) · Journal of Hellenic Studies · doi:10.2307/625170 · Cited by 1,119 · cited 1×
“Our chemical equilibrium grid of molecular, atomic, and ionic abundances as a function of temperature, pressure, and metallicity is based on the work of Fegley & Lodders (1994,1996), Lodders (1999, 2002), and Lodders & Fegley (2002, 2006).”
The Limiting Effects of Dust in Brown Dwarf Model Atmospheres
Allard, F., Hauschildt, P. H., Alexander, D. R., Tamanai, A., & Schweitzer, A. (2001) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/321547 · Cited by 1,062
Evolutionary Models for Very Low-Mass Stars and Brown Dwarfs with Dusty Atmospheres
Chabrier, G., Baraffe, I., Allard, F., & Hauschildt, P. (2000) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/309513 · Cited by 1,057 · cited 12×
“For a 10 Gyr old brown dwarf of 0.06 M , we find a luminosity that is 0.104 dex lower than that of Baraffe et al. (2003), which is in perfect agreement with the value given in Chabrier et al. (2000b) for the change in luminosity brought by introducing conduction in the evolution.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn Equation of State for Low-Mass Stars and Giant Planets
Saumon, D., Chabrier, G., & van Horn, H. V. (1995) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1086/192204 · Cited by 959
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“Our thermal radiative transfer follows the source function technique of Toon et al. (1989) allowing inclusion of arbitrary Mie scattering particles in the opacity of each layer.”
Method
Flagged first, then by citations
17 of the 109 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 13
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Cited by
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Items 501–544 of 544
Mâlin, M., Boccaletti, A., Charnay, B., Pueyo, L., Bidot, A., Patapis, P., Hinkley, S., Petrus, S., Whiteford, N., Perrin, M. D., et al. (2026) · Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ae5240 · Cited by 1
Lew, B. W. P., Roellig, T., Batalha, N., Wogan, N. F., Greene, T., Marley, M., Fortney, J., Leisenring, J., Johnstone, D., de Furio, M., et al. (2026) · Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ae4747 · Cited by 1
“51-054031.2 using the Saumon & Marley (2008) grid, which spans log( K zz ) from 2 to 6.”
InfluentialSelf-citationCeva, W., Matthews, E. C., Rickman, E., S'egransan, D., Vigan, A., Bowler, B. P., Forveille, T., Franson, K., Hagelberg, J., & Udry, S. (2025) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202555310 · Cited by 1
“Additionally, we chose these grids because they include some form of cloud treatment, since cloud formation is relevant both for BDs (Ackerman & Marley 2001, Helling et al. 2008, Stephens et al. 2009) and for UCDs as a whole (Marley et al. 2002; Cushing et al. 2006, 2008; Saumon & Marley 2008).”
A Survey of Model Fits to Brown Dwarf Spectra Through the L–T Sequence
Turner, S. K., Stephens, D. C., Scoresby, C. B., & Miller, J. A. (2025) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/adda2a · Cited by 1
TelescopeML. II. Convolutional Neural Networks for Predicting Brown Dwarf Atmospheric Parameters
Gharib-Nezhad, E., Valizadegan, H., Batalha, N. E., Martinho, M. J. S., & Lew, B. W. P. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ada1d2 · Cited by 1
Frost, W., Albert, L., Doyon, R., Gagné, J., Montet, B. T., Fontanive, C., Artigau, É., Johnson, J. A., Edwards, B., & Benneke, B. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad5da7 · Cited by 3
An Informed and Systematic Method to Identify Variable Mid-L Dwarfs
Oliveros-Gómez, N., Manjavacas, E., Gagliuffi, D. B. B., Karalidi, T., Vos, J., & Faherty, J. (2024) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad39e4 · Cited by 1
“…others, we use the contribution functions predicted for an object of similar effective temperature and surface gravity by radiative-transfer models (Saumon & Marley 2008), and also the condensate mixing ratio (mole fraction) of each cloud expected for LP 261-75b (Mg 2 FeO 4 , Fe and Al 2 O 3 )…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTime-resolved Optical Polarization Monitoring of the Most Variable Brown Dwarf
Manjavacas, E., Miles-Páez, P. A., Karalidi, T., Vos, J. M., Galloway, M. L., & Girard, J. H. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acc317 · Cited by 2
“The transition between the L and the T spectral types was reproduced by a combination of cloudy and cloud-free models (Allard et al. 2001; Ackerman & Marley 2001; Saumon & Marley 2008).”
MethodTop-of-the-atmosphere and Vertical Cloud Structure of a Fast-rotating Late T Dwarf
Manjavacas, E., Karalidi, T., Tan, X., Vos, J., Lew, B. W. P., Biller, B., & Oliveros-Gómez, N. (2022) · Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac7953 · Cited by 1
“Similarly, radiative transfer models with solar metallicity (Saumon & Marley 2008) provide the vertical cloud structure expected for the atmosphere of an object with similar effective temperature and surface gravity to 2M0050–3322 (Teff= 800 K, log g= 5.0, from Filippazzo et al. 2015).”
InfluentialPhotometric Properties of L and T Dwarf Binaries
Leone, A. C., Best, W., Liu, M. C., Magnier, E., & Dupuy, T. (2021) · Research Notes of the AAS · doi:10.3847/2515-5172/ac4608 · Cited by 1
Detection and characterization of exoplanets in high contrast images by the inverse problem approach
Cantalloube, F. (2016) · doi:10.70675/92230789zadbfz48a3za7dfz605e78c02b64 · Cited by 1
“1 shows a real SPHERE-IFS image and a simulated image using the ideal model of coronagraph from Sauvage et al. (2010) that has been used previously to run MEDUSAE.”
MethodA new method to estimate the ages of globular clusters: the case of NGC 3201
Calamida, A., Bono, G., Stetson, P., Dall'ora, M., Monelli, M., Corsi, C., Moroni, P. G. P., Degl'innocenti, S., Dotter, A., Brasseur, C., et al. (2008) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921309031846 · Cited by 1
“The convective motions are indeed adiabatic (Saumon & Marley 2008).”
BackgroundAerosol composition of hot giant exoplanets dominated by silicates and hydrocarbon hazes
Gao, P., Thorngren, D., Lee, E. K. H., Fortney, J., Morley, C., Wakeford, H., Powell, D., Stevenson, K., & Zhang, X. (2020) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-020-1114-3
Salmasi, B. S., Jalan, P., Goto, T., Hashimoto, T., Wang, F.-G., Zafar, T., Kakiichi, K., Kilerci, E., Ayyappan, S., Meyer, R., et al. (2026) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aeaf18
SPHEREx 0.75–5 μm Spectra for a Sequence of Nearby Brown Dwarfs
Rustamkulov, Z., Kirkpatrick, J., Akeson, R., Werner, M., Ashby, M., Chang, T.-C., Chen, S.-S., Cooray, A., Crill, B., Dor'e, O., et al. (2026) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae9d66
A Systematic Trend in the Observed versus Predicted Radii of Transiting Brown Dwarfs
Beatty, T. (2026) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aea0c9
Wilson, L. G., Hey, D., Shappee, B., Zhang, J.-W., Ejercito, K., Carmichael, T., Murphy, S., Johnson, J. A., & Huber, D. (2026) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae93a0
Phillips, C., Bedell, M., Manea, C., Duck, A., Asnodkar, A. P., Griffith, E. J., Rothermich, A., Calamari, E., Faherty, J., Burningham, B., et al. (2026) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae88e9
JWST Color Sequence of Transiting Exoplanets and Directly Imaged Substellar Objects
Fu, G.-W., Lothringer, J., Mukherjee, S., Sing, D., Manjavacas, E., Stevenson, K., & Balmer, W. (2026) · Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ae9ff6
Observed Characteristics of Brown Dwarf Atmospheres
Faherty, J., & Vos, J. (2026) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-052722-103322
Brinjikji, M., Smith, A., Patience, J., Nielsen, E., Ware, A., Sanchez, J. A., de Rosa, R. D., Garani, J., Softich, E., Liu, M. C., et al. (2026) · Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ae82f2
“Theoretical models for the properties and evolution of substellar objects have been extensively developed and applied to both exoplanet and brown dwarf atmospheres (Chabrier et al. 2000; Baraffe et al. 2003; Allard & Freytag 2010; Helling et al. 2008; Saumon & Marley 2008; Morley et al. 2024).”
Assessing Ariel's capabilities to observe free-floating brown dwarfs
Akhmetshyn, R., Cowan, N. B., & Casewell, S. (2026) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2605.28924
“Weadoptanapproximatef sed to spectral type relation from Saumon & Marley (2008).”
Impact of Clouds on the Atmosphere–Mantle Interface of Sub-Neptunes
Mukherjee, S., Nixon, M., Welbanks, L., Mang, J., Wogan, N. F., Batalha, N. E., & Line, M. (2026) · Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae7432
Spectral Classification of Brown Dwarfs Using Machine Learning
Callen, A. R., Fierro, I. H. B., & Gómez, M. (2026) · Revista mexicana de astronomía y astrofísica · doi:10.22201/ia.30618649e.2026.62.02.7519
Planetary formation tracks on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
Gottstein, B., Marleau, G., & Mordasini, C. (2026) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202659585
“Here too, while relevant when interpreting su ffi ciently precise measurements (e.g., Saumon & Marley 2008; Hinkley et al. 2023; Morley et al. 2024), the microphysics of clouds does not change qualitatively the cooling of gas giants.”
Searching for Ultracool Dwarfs in Early LSST Data Products
Honaker, E., Gizis, J., Aganze, C., Chaini, S., Bianco, F., Žerjal, M., Martín, E., Clarke, R. W., Southwick, A., Petrie, H. B., et al. (2026) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae6ce9
Kothari, H., Cushing, M., Beiler, S. A., Visscher, C., Marley, M., Burningham, B., Schneider, A., & Kirkpatrick, J. (2026) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae5bb7
Self-citationDiscovery of planetary-mass binaries in the Lower Centaurus-Crux association
Cáceres, C., Minniti, D., Mejías, A., Gómez, M., Alonso-García, J., Ivanov, V., Pullen, J., Saito, R., Smith, L., Solano, E., et al. (2026) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347673
“Flux reversal is observed in L-dwarf + T-dwarf pairs, and is attributed to the presence or absence of thick clouds in their atmospheres (e.g., Burgasser et al. 2013; Saumon & Marley 2008).”
The Influence of Clouds and Deuterium-burning on Brown Dwarf Habitable Zones
Smith, K. J., & Marley, M. (2026) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae4fb0
Self-citationNarayan, R. S., Soares-Furtado, M., Limbach, M., Ramanujam, N., Vanderburg, A., & Vos, J. (2025) · Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ae547d
TOI-2155 b: A Massive Brown Dwarf or a Very Low-mass Star?
Ahmed, M. R., Daylan, T., Carmichael, T., Casewell, S., Hafner, A., Alvarado-Montes, J. A., Bieryla, A., Quinn, S., Calkins, M., Collins, K., et al. (2025) · Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ae7370
Effect of Dust Size on the Near-infrared Spectra (1.0–5.0 μm) of Brown Dwarf Atmospheres
Sorahana, S., Kobayashi, H., & Tanaka, K. K. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac1271 · Cited by 1
A Multi-Conjugate Adaptive Optics view of Bulge Globular Clusters
Saracino, S. (2018) · doi:10.6092/unibo/amsdottorato/8631
“With respect to the traditional vertical method referred to the HB level, it has the drawback of requiring the detection of a much fainter feature in the CMD (fainter by ∼ 7 magnitudes), but i) it is much more populated because the stellar luminosity function increases towards lower masses and ii) it should be less af…”
MethodSearching for Faint Comoving Companions to the α Centauri system in the VVV Survey Infrared Images
Beamín, J. C., Minniti, D., Pullen, J., Ivanov, V., Bendek, E., Bayo, A., Gromadzki, M., Kurtev, R., Lucas, P., & Butler, R. P. (2017) · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2144
“The colours were calculated using the Saumon & Marley 2008 cloud-free evolution model grids.”
MethodExoplanet Meteorology: Characterizing the Atmospheres of Directly Imaged Sub-Stellar Objects
Rajan, A. (2017) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.804060
“In addition to the photometry of 51 Eri b and the field and young brown dwarfs we also over-plot two low mass, 5 and 14 MJup, evolutionary model tracks (assuming hot-start conditions) from Saumon and Marley (2008); Marley et al. (2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFundamental Parameters of the Lowest Mass Stars to the Highest Mass Planets
Filippazzo, J. (2016) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.818924
“Though current ultracool dwarf model atmosphere codes (Allard, 2013; Saumon and Marley, 2008; Burrows et al., 2011; Barman, 2008) account for more complex chemistry and dynamics than ever before, incomplete physics and line lists frequently limit reliable data fits to those brown dwarfs which…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMolecules, Dust and Ices in Brown Dwarf Atmospheres
Leggett, S., Tremblin, P., Saumon, D., Marley, M., Morley, C., Amundsen, D. S., Baraffe, I., & Chabrier, G. (2015) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921317005129
Self-citationStudies of Metal Poor T Dwarfs in UKIDSS
Murray, D. (2013) · doi:10.18745/th.13733
“In particular, the higher surface gravity model is probably more extreme than reality, as Saumon and Marley (2008) suggest that log g = 5.”
BackgroundFurthering our knowledge of the solar neighborhood using WISE
Cushing, M., Kirkpatrick, J., Gelino, C., Wright, E., Gizis, J., Gomes, J., Leggett, S., Lodieu, N., Mace, G., & Dupuy, T. (2013) · doi:10.1002/asna.201211754
The spectra of low-temperature atmospheres: Lessons learned from brown dwarfs
Burgasser, A. (2010) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921311020072
“Much of our understanding of brown dwarf atmospheres comes from the comparison of detailed spectroscopic measurements to theoretical atmosphere models, and the ongoing development of those models (e.g., Burrows et al. 2002; Saumon & Marley 2008).”
BackgroundBasri, G., & Burgasser, A. J. (2021) · Encyclopedia of Astrobiology · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27833-4_208-5
Clouds and Hazes in Planetary Atmospheres
Gao, P. (2017) · CaltechTHESIS (California Institute of Technology) · doi:10.7907/z99w0cgs
Brown dwarfs and free-floating planets
Perryman, M. A. C. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511994852.010
Metadata
- Authors
- Saumon, D., & Marley, M. S.
- Affiliations
- Los Alamos National Laboratory (US)
- Ames Research Center (US)
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2008-12-20
- Volume
- 689
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 1327-1344
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2028553841
- Cited by
- 693
- References
- 109
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 60 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 25
- FWCI
- 14.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Instrumentation › Astronomy and Astrophysical Research
- Keywords
- brown dwarf evolution, L dwarfs, T dwarfs, ultracool dwarfs, color-magnitude diagram, L/T transition, atmospheric models, deuterium burning, metallicity, unresolved binaries, Pleiades, open clusters, substellar objects, giant planets
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