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The mass of the photon
Abstract
Because classical Maxwellian electromagnetism has been one of the cornerstones of physics during the past century, experimental tests of its foundations are always of considerable interest. Within that context, one of the most important efforts of this type has historically been the search for a rest mass of the photon. The effects of a nonzero photon rest mass can be incorporated into electromagnetism straightforwardly through the Proca equations, which are the simplest relativistic generalization of Maxwell's equations. Using them, it is possible to consider some far-reaching implications of a massive photon, such as variation of the speed of light, deviations in the behaviour of static electromagnetic fields, longitudinal electromagnetic radiation and even questions of gravitational deflection. All of these have been studied carefully using a number of different approaches over the past several decades. This review attempts to assess the status of our current knowledge and understanding of the photon rest mass, with particular emphasis on a discussion of the various experimental methods that have been used to set upper limits on it. All such tests can be most easily categorized in terms of terrestrial and extra-terrestrial approaches, and the review classifies them as such. Up to now, there has been no conclusive evidence of a finite mass for the photon, with the results instead yielding ever more stringent upper bounds on the size of it, thus confirming the related aspects of Maxwellian electromagnetism with concomitant precision. Of course, failure to find a finite photon mass in any one experiment or class of experiments is not proof that it is identically zero and, even as the experimental limits move more closely towards the fundamental bounds of measurement uncertainty, new conceptual approaches to the task continue to appear. The intrinsic importance of the question and the lure of what might be revealed by attaining the next decimal place are as strong a draw on this question as they are in any other aspect of precise tests of physical laws.
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“When ξ is positive, this equation is equivalent to the Proca equation [34-36] and m A ≡ ξ 1 / 2 can be interpreted as the rest mass of photons.”
From Electrodynamics on cosmological scales (2016) · cites this paper as [35]
In the citing paper
“When ξ is positive, this equation is equivalent to the Proca equation [34-36] and m A ≡ ξ 1 / 2 can be interpreted as the rest mass of photons.”
From Electrodynamics on cosmological scales (2016) · cites this paper as [35]
In the citing paper
“If they interact with matter sufficiently weak or do not interact with matter at all, we still get g = 2 and the Stephan-Boltzmann law remains valid [35, 36, 58].”
From Electrodynamics on cosmological scales (2016) · cites this paper as [35]
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Джумакадырович, Д. В., & Folomeev, V. (2024) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-024-13322-3 · Cited by 1
“…hole physics [18,19], dark matter models [20,21], a study of processes at cosmological scales [22,23], a consideration of effects arising due to the possible presence of the rest mass of a photon [24], generalized Proca theories with second-order equations of motion in a curved spacetime [25].”
Quantum fields from dimensional analysis: Applications in condensed matter systems
Robinett, R. W. (2025) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/5.0220969 · Cited by 1
The Theory of Observational Relativity Serial Report 2: The Rest Mass of Photons is not Really Zero
Ruan, X. (2025) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.170204.1 · Cited by 1
Christodoulou, D. M., Kazanas, D., & Laycock, S. (2025) · Axioms · doi:10.3390/axioms14110845 · Cited by 1
Improved Dark Photon Sensitivity from a Superconducting-Radio-Frequency-Cavity Experiment
Kalia, S., Liu, Z., Giaccone, B., Melnychuk, O., Pilipenko, R., Berlin, A., Hook, A., Belomestnykh, S. A., Contreras-Martinez, C., Frolov, D., et al. (2026) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/p7r3-c15d · Cited by 1
“[23, 24] for a review).”
Quantum-state texture for accelerated atoms interacting with a massive scalar field
Huang, Z., Zhao, L., Ye, Y., Wang, J., Rong, Z., & Sheng, X. (2025) · Quantum Information Processing · doi:10.1007/s11128-025-05010-2 · Cited by 1
“Massive scalar fields have also been proposed to model a photon field with mass [22, 23].”
Massive-photon electrodynamics and MHD in curved spacetime and cosmology
Noh, H., & Hwang, J.-C. (2025) · Physics of the Dark Universe · doi:10.1016/j.dark.2025.102192 · Cited by 1
“The idea was elaborated by his disciple Alexandru Proca in the context of the massive spin-1 vector mesons [12]; for more related works by Proca, see references in [2, 5, 6]; for a historical sum-mary, see [13].”
Implications of the weak gravity conjecture on charge, kinetic mixing, the photon mass, and more
Abu-Ajamieh, F., Okada, N., & Vempati, S. K. (2025) · Nuclear Physics B · doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysb.2025.117049 · Cited by 1
PHOTON MASS AND VERY LONG BASELINE INTERFEROMETRY
ACCIOLY, A., HELAYËL-NETO, J., & Scatena, E. (2010) · International Journal of Modern Physics D · doi:10.1142/s021827181001844x · Cited by 1
Rojas, R., & Robles, P. (2011) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/0143-0807/32/6/019 · Cited by 1
Discussion on Mass in a Gravitational Field
Likui, Z., & Yining, S. (2013) · The International Journal of Physics · doi:10.12691/ijp-1-5-3 · Cited by 1
“In view of various accurate experiments in modern physics, for example, experiments of gravitational mass and inertial mass, experiments of the speed of light, etc [14,15].”
BackgroundMassive Long Range Photons and the Variation of the Fine Structure Constant
Nyambuya, G. G. (2013) · Cited by 1
Dotta, B. T., Karbowski, L. M., Murugan, N. J., & Persinger, M. A. (2015) · NeuroQuantology · doi:10.14704/nq.2016.14.1.889 · Cited by 1
On The Origin of Magnetism And Gravitation And On The Nature of Electricity And Matter
Hochecker, H.-J. (2016) · doi:10.12691/ijp-4-4-3 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Tu, L.-C., Luo, J., & Gillies, G. T.
- Affiliations
- Huazhong University of Science and Technology (CN)
- University of Virginia (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gillies, George T
- Venue
- Reports on Progress in Physics
- Publisher
- IOP Publishing
- Published
- 2004-11-24
- Volume
- 68
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 77-130
- ISSN
- 0034-4885 (ISSN-L)
- 1361-6633
- OpenAlex
- W2153158728
- Cited by
- 303
- References
- 205
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 4.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Reports on Progress in Physics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum and Classical Electrodynamics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Relativity and Gravitational Theory
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Particle physics theoretical and experimental studies
- Keywords
- photon mass, Proca equation, modified Maxwell equations, variable speed of light, gravitational deflection
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