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Introduction
Abstract
This chapter first provides a historical background for the development of Christianity in Rome and Buddhism in China. It illustrates in both China and Rome, the story of a new religion cannot be told in simple terms of “conquest” or even “success.” Both Buddhism and Christianity faced resistance from elites and commoners alike; to gain acceptance, both engaged in processes of accommodation and adaptation that changed the new faith as much as they changed the old culture. Chapters in the volume are grouped into three parts: Part 1, “Initial Encounters and Causes of Resistance,” considers the obstacles each new religion encountered; Part 2, “Interaction, Influence, and Accommodation,” pursues this theme of adaptation and cross-pollination; Part 3, “Synthesis and Assimilation,” looks at a further stage in this process whereby these new belief systems both altered and were altered by the material life of the old society, including art, architecture, and daily life.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This introduction frames a comparative volume on the religious transformation of China and Rome from ca. 1st–6th centuries CE, arguing that Buddhism and Christianity were not simple conquests but processes of resistance, accommodation, and mutual change. It provides historical background and previews 15 chapters grouped into three thematic parts on initial encounters, interaction/accommodation, and synthesis/assimilation.
Key findings
- The introduction argues that in both China and Rome the story of a new religion cannot be told in simple terms of “conquest” or even “success”: Buddhism and Christianity faced resistance from elites and commoners alike, and to gain acceptance both engaged in accommodation and adaptation that changed the new faith as much as the old culture.
- In China, Buddhism’s spread is set against the downfall of the Han (202 BCE–220 CE), political fragmentation from 220 to 265 CE, the Jin (265–420 CE), Eastern Jin (317–420 CE), Southern Dynasties (420–589 CE), and Northern Wei (386–534 CE); Buddhist ideas, practices, and values challenged correlative cosmology, the imperial cult of Heaven and Earth, ancestor worship, Confucian family and social ethics, and imperial authority, and sometimes faced persecution.
- In Rome, Christians endured sporadic persecution from the Great Fire in 64 CE to Constantine’s conversion, traditionally dated to 312 CE; by the end of the fourth century Christianity was proclaimed the only official state religion. The introduction notes newer scholarship emphasizing the broader religious marketplace and imperial demands for unity and consensus, not only Christian priorities.
- The volume’s chapters trace adaptation examples including chen-wei prophetic/apocryphal integration, Christian leadership selection, the transformation of daimon into demon, Buddhist use of ghosts, nirvana imagery, monastic architecture, and retribution/justice, grouped into three parts: “Initial Encounters and Causes of Resistance,” “Interaction, Influence, and Accommodation,” and “Synthesis and Assimilation.”
Methods
- Design: introductory chapter to an edited volume, providing historical background and a thematic frame for 15 chapters.
- Data or sample: no new dataset; it draws on the volume’s contributed case studies by specialists in Roman and Chinese history, philology, economics, and religious studies.
- Main analysis: comparative and thematic juxtaposition of Christianity in Rome and Buddhism in China, focused on accommodation, assimilation, and contestation; the aim is to spur further research rather than provide final answers.
Limitations
- Stated: the volume does not pretend to offer a comprehensive study; the aim is not final answers but to spur further research, and the case studies can do little more than indicate the rich rewards awaiting further research.
- Stated: the topic is large and can easily become drowned in generalities, so the editors asked specialists for concrete examples.
- Evident: as an introduction, it synthesizes other chapters rather than presenting independent primary evidence or a formal comparative methodology; its comparative claims depend on the volume’s case studies.
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Claims the paper makes
- Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract
To gain acceptance, both Buddhism and Christianity engaged in processes of accommodation and adaptation that changed the new faith as much as they changed the old culture.
“to gain acceptance, both engaged in processes of accommodation and adaptation that changed the new faith as much as they changed the old culture.”
- Also stated in: § Historical Background · plain
“to gain acceptance, both religions engaged in processes of accommodation and adaptation that changed the new faith as much as they changed the old culture.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: When new religious beliefs, practices, institutions, or values are brought into a society that already has beliefs, practices, institutions, and values of long standing, contention will inevitably ensue and complex dynamics of interchange and contestation will occur, resulting in alterations both in the newly arrived religion and in the newly transformed host culture.
- Also stated in: § Historical Background · plain
- Interpretationreasoning§ Historical Background
The issue of Buddhism's interaction with Chinese culture is far more complicated than traditional historiographic models of simple 'conquest' and 'reception' would indicate.
“Thus the issue is far more complicated than the traditional historiographic models of simple 'conquest' and 'reception' would indicate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Historical Background
Many key aspects of Buddhism were long resisted by some intellectuals as well as commoners.
“Many key aspects of Buddhism-an Indian religion that grew out of a very different soil-were long resisted by some intellectuals as well as commoners.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Historical Background
Resistance to Buddhist teachings sometimes took the form of outright persecution, entailing the forcible shuttering of monasteries and the return of monks and nuns to secular life.
“Resistance to the new Buddhist teachings sometimes even took the form of outright persecution, entailing the forcible shuttering of monasteries and the return of monks and nuns to secular life.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract
In both China and Rome, the story of a new religion cannot be told in simple terms of 'conquest' or even 'success.'
“It illustrates in both China and Rome, the story of a new religion cannot be told in simple terms of 'conquest' or even 'success.'”
- Also stated in: § Historical Background · plain
“Thus, in both China and Rome, the story of a new religion cannot be told in simple terms of 'conquest' or even 'success.'”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: When new religious beliefs, practices, institutions, or values are brought into a society that already has beliefs, practices, institutions, and values of long standing, contention will inevitably ensue and complex dynamics of interchange and contestation will occur, resulting in alterations both in the newly arrived religion and in the newly transformed host culture.
- Also stated in: § Historical Background · plain
- Interpretationreasoning§ Historical Background
Some Buddhist ideas, practices, and values seemed to threaten the very basis of Chinese cultural identity.
“Some Buddhist ideas, practices, and values even seemed to threaten the very basis of Chinese cultural identity”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Thematic Sections
By the end of the period of study, the two new faiths were so well established that they could surmount attacks that, under previous conditions, should have spelled defeat for their beliefs.
“By the end of our period of study, the two new faiths were so well established that they could surmount attacks that, under previous conditions, should have spelled defeat for their beliefs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Thematic Sections
Both religions introduced means of controlling malevolent supernatural forces that helped them establish strong bases across a wide cross section of the population.
“Both religions, for instance, introduced means of controlling malevolent supernatural forces that helped them establish strong bases across a wide cross section of the population.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Thematic Sections
In the course of making their beliefs palatable to potential converts, Christians and Buddhists entered into dialogue with elites and philosophers.
“In the course of making their beliefs palatable to potential converts, Christians and Buddhists entered into dialogue with elites and philosophers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Thematic Sections
The process by which Christianity and Buddhism became established in their respective regions was much more complex than the language of conquest or triumph would suggest.
“The authors of the chapters in this book show that the process by which Christianity and Buddhism became established in their respective regions was much more complex than the language of conquest or triumph would suggest.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Abstract
The new religions were distinct from other religions in that they both brought a new understanding of relations with divine forces in a way that effectively undermined the rulers' authority.
“These new religions were distinct from other religions in that they both brought a new understanding of those relations in a way that effectively undermined the rulers' authority.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Ancient states were religious institutions; a principal duty of their leaders was to conduct negotiations with divine forces.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Thematic Sections
The process of interaction between new faiths and old societies was by no means one-sided.
“Thus, the process was by no means one-sided.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Thematic Sections
A new synthesis of old society and new faith occurred.
“Instead, as the authors of the chapters in this section show, a new synthesis of old society and new faith occurred.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Probably not a substantial claim. 10
- It may state two separate claims as one. 4
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Historical BackgroundThe arrival of Buddhism was made easy by the political fragmentation and cultural and religious turmoil caused by the downfall of Han and the rise of Daoist religion and skepticism.
“One can argue that the arrival of Buddhism was made easy by the political fragmentation and cultural and religious turmoil caused by the downfall of Han and the rise of Daoist religion and skepticism.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Historical BackgroundThe process by which Buddhism was fused into Chinese culture was neither smooth nor uniform nor inevitable.
“But this process was neither smooth nor uniform nor inevitable.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ AbstractBoth Buddhism and Christianity faced resistance from elites and commoners alike.
“Both Buddhism and Christianity faced resistance from elites and commoners alike”
- Also stated in: § Historical Background · plain
“Both Buddhism and Christianity faced resistance from elites and commoners alike”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § Historical Background · plain
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ Historical BackgroundAn old saying that 'The Romans became Christians, but the Christians became Romans' applies equally well to Buddhists in China.
“An old saying that 'The Romans became Christians, but the Christians became Romans' applies equally well to Buddhists in China.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Historical BackgroundBuddhist concepts, parlance, and customs were fused into Chinese mentality, language, literature, and art over the course of many centuries, becoming organic parts of the whole.
“In a similar fashion, Buddhist concepts, parlance, and customs were fused into Chinese mentality, language, literature, and art over the course of many centuries, becoming organic parts of the whole.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ Historical BackgroundAlthough Christians and pagans grew closer at both the intellectual and popular level during these centuries, the legacy of persecution played a major role in the development of Christian identity.
“Although Christians and pagans grew closer at both the intellectual and popular level during these centuries, the legacy of persecution played a major role in the development of Christian identity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Historical BackgroundUnder the Roman empire, Christians endured sporadic persecution from the time of Rome's Great Fire in 64 CE down to Constantine's conversion.
“Under the Roman empire, Christians endured sporadic persecution from the time of Rome's Great Fire in the year 64 CE down to Constantine's conversion.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Historical BackgroundA century after Constantine, the new religion was so well established that the Roman empire became a Christian empire.
“A century after Constantine, the new religion was so well established that the Roman empire became a Christian empire.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ AbstractThe new religions persuaded and transformed the various groups of people in their respective empires and knit them into a new worldview.
“Yet despite these obstacles, both religions persuaded and transformed the various groups of people in their respective empires and knit them into a new worldview.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Thematic SectionsIn neither China nor Rome did the new religions simply sweep away the beliefs and customs of the old society; rather, over centuries of interaction and dialogue, the old societies changed the new religions as much as the religions changed the old societies.
“In neither China nor Rome did the new religions simply sweep away the beliefs and customs of the old society; rather, over centuries of interaction and dialogue, the old societies changed the new religions as much as the religions changed the old societies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: When new religious beliefs, practices, institutions, or values are brought into a society that already has beliefs, practices, institutions, and values of long standing, contention will inevitably ensue and complex dynamics of interchange and contestation will occur, resulting in alterations both in the newly arrived religion and in the newly transformed host culture.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Thematic SectionsBoth Buddhism and Christianity brought with them radically new concepts of the role of the individual and society.
“Both religions brought with them radically new concepts of the role of the individual and society.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Thematic SectionsBuddhists preached against the strong family ties and ancestor cult and even the authority of the rulers that characterized Chinese society.
“Similarly, Buddhists preached against the strong family ties and ancestor cult and even the authority of the rulers that characterized Chinese society.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Thematic SectionsChristians taught humility, equality, and the importance of the afterlife to Romans who celebrated wealth, status, and enjoyment of material comforts.
“Christians taught humility, equality, and the importance of the afterlife to Romans who celebrated wealth, status, and enjoyment of material comforts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
When new religious beliefs, practices, institutions, or values are brought into a society that already has beliefs, practices, institutions, and values of long standing, contention will inevitably ensue and complex dynamics of interchange and contestation will occur, resulting in alterations both in the newly arrived religion and in the newly transformed host culture.
“Such an approach is based on the general proposition that when new religious beliefs, practices, institutions, or values are brought into a society that already has beliefs, practices, institutions, and values of long standing, contention will inevitably ensue and complex dynamics of interchange and contestation will occur, resulting in alterations both in the newly arrived religion and in the new”
The paper relies on this without support.
Ancient states were religious institutions; a principal duty of their leaders was to conduct negotiations with divine forces.
“For instance, a trait common to both Rome and China that is easily neglected is the fact that ancient states were religious institutions; a principal duty of their leaders was to conduct negotiations with divine forces.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Buddhism's introduction to China is dated to two different periods
MinorThe introduction places the arrival of Buddhism in China in the first century CE, but later says Buddhism was introduced during the third to fifth centuries.
“In the g7Frst century of the Common Era, both empires were challenged by the arrival of new belief systems with outlooks and values that radically differed from longestablished social and cultural norms.”
“Lu points out that during the third to the g7Ffth centuries, when Buddhism was introduced into China, the propagators deployed a strategy for integrating their homegrown skills and knowledge of magic, divination, and mysticism with their Chinese counterparts”
Citations
Metadata
- Authors
- Poo, M.-C., & Drake, H. A.
- Venue
- Oxford Scholarship Online
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press
- Published
- 2017-06-22
- OpenAlex
- W4236936886
- Cited by
- 0
- References
- 0
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Study and Philosophy of Religion
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
- Keywords
- Chinese Buddhism, religious accommodation, religious adaptation, religious syncretism, early Christianity, early Buddhism
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