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The Taming of Ghosts in Early Chinese Buddhism
Abstract
The problems that Buddhism faced when the earliest monks introduced it into China can be divided into two kinds: how to persuade the cultured elite class, including the rulers, and how to win over the trust of the commoners. As early Buddhists incorporated the Chinese conceptions of ghost by using the terms gui–guishen interchangeably in the translation of sutras when the original Indian terms were demons of nonhuman origins, it created an impression that Buddhism could deal with the ghosts in the Chinese sense. This chapter concentrates on the second sets of problems, that is, how early Buddhism established its root in Chinese society by accommodating the most basic religious concept—the ghost—into its discourse so as to forge its credibility among the Chinese populace. By doing so, Buddhism could also be understood as being transformed into an altered existence that began a new life in Chinese history.
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TL;DR
This chapter argues that early Chinese Buddhism gained credibility among commoners by accommodating indigenous Chinese conceptions of ghosts (*gui/guishen*) into translation, exorcistic discourse, and proselytizing stories. In doing so, Buddhism was itself transformed into a Chinese religious presence that competed and overlapped with Daoism and popular cults.
Key findings
- Early Buddhist translators rendered diverse Sanskrit spiritual beings—*yakṣa*, *rākṣasa*, *vītala*, *preta*, etc.—with the Chinese terms *gui* or *guishen*, producing familiarity with Chinese ghost concepts while also retaining a mysterious aura through transliteration.
- Buddhist texts present four main ways of controlling or taming ghosts: calling Buddha/Bodhisattva names or reciting sutras; reciting exorcistic spells; using sacred objects or rituals; and monks expelling ghosts through their presence as embodiments of Dharma.
- The chapter contrasts Buddhist and Daoist/Chinese ghost origins: Buddhist hungry ghosts (*preta/e-gui*) are punished for moral failings such as greed or deception, while pre-Buddhist and Daoist ghosts typically arise from untimely, unjust, or unnatural death and may seek revenge.
- Proselytizing stories show competition with Daoism and local cults, but also mutual recognition: one haunting story has a Daoist petition accepted in a heavenly court while the Buddhist is told to rely on the Dharma; Baolin’s “Edict to Mount Tai” attacks popular deities as animal spirits or minor ghosts.
Methods
- Design: historical and textual analysis of early Chinese Buddhist translation terminology, exorcistic narratives, and comparative conceptions of ghosts in Buddhism, Daoism, and pre-Buddhist China.
- Data: early Chinese Buddhist sutras, the *Gaoseng zhuan* (Biographies of Eminent Monks), Six Dynasties *zhiguai* anomaly stories, the Tang encyclopedia *Fayuan zhulin*, the third-century BCE *Daybook* (*rishu*), and Daoist texts such as the *Taishang zhengyi zhouguijing*.
- Analysis: close reading of passages where *gui*, *guishen*, and *hun* are used, plus comparison of Buddhist and Daoist ghost origins and exorcistic strategies.
Limitations
- Stated: the paper says that “given the paucity of evidence,” it is difficult to establish the earliest “conscious” introduction of Buddhism into China.
- Stated: in one case, the author notes, “We do not know the wordings of the original Sanskrit,” so the translator’s choices cannot be fully checked against an original.
- Evident: the argument relies heavily on Buddhist proselytizing texts, biographies, and later compilations, which the chapter itself says had a “proselytizing intention”; these may reveal rhetorical strategies more than actual popular belief or practice.
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- Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 3
In the Za piyujing, the alternating use of gui and shen for the same spiritual being shows that the Buddhist writer could choose the two terms to suit different situations in a story.
“An interesting case, in the Za piyujing 雜譬喻經 , involving the alternating use of the terms of gui and shen for a same spiritual being, shows that the Buddhist writer could choose to use the two terms to suit different situations in a story:”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Za piyujing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingreasoning§ Abstract · p. 2
Early Buddhist texts abound with references to popular religious activities, including the worshipping of ghosts and spirits.
“Early Buddhist texts, therefore, abound with references to popular religious activities, including the worshipping of ghosts and spirits.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Abstract · p. 2
A number of Six Dynasties anomaly (zhiguai) stories, written by Buddhist believers or sympathizers, used ghost stories to show the magic power of Buddhist monks.
“Additionally, a number of the 'anomaly ( zhiguai ) stories' of the Six Dynasties period, obviously written by Buddhist believers or sympathizers, utilized ghost stories as a means to show the magic power of Buddhist monks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 2
Translators sometimes transliterated Sanskrit names using Chinese characters and added gui to show that the beings were hostile or spiritual in nature.
“Without having to explain laboriously the original meanings of these spiritual beings, sometimes these names were transliterated using Chinese characters and added a gui to show that they were hostile or spiritual in nature.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation§ Abstract · p. 2
The Biographies of Eminent Monks contains many stories portraying monks as having special talents or power to exorcize ghosts.
“Many stories recorded in the Biographies portrayed the monks as having special talents or power to exorcize ghosts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gaoseng zhuan
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5
In the Foshuo yenlowang wutian shizhe jing, translated by Hui Jian, the Buddha says that when people die, their hun/soul will leave the body.
“In the Foshuo yenlowang wutian shizhe jing 佛說閻羅王五天使者經 , translated by Hui Jian of the Song Dynasty (421-479 CE ), the Buddha says 'I have seen that when people die, their hun /soul will leave the body.'”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foshuo yenlowang wutian shizhe jing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingown data§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 3
Spirits of heaven, usually called gods or shen in Chinese, could also be rendered as guishen in Chinese sutras.
“On the other hand, spirits of heaven, which usually would be called 'gods' or shen in Chinese, could also be rendered as ' guishen ' in the Chinese sutras.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 3
In the Daybook chapter 'Exorcism', common usage allowed a gui-ghost or evil spirit to also be referred to as a shen.
“In a chapter entitled 'Exorcism' ( jiejiu 詰咎 ) in the Daybook , it is clear that in the common usage, a gui -ghost or evil spirit could also be referred to as a ' shen . '”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Daybook
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4
As early as the third century BCE, the term e-gui had already been listed as one of the common ghosts that could appear to people.
“As early as the third century BCE , the term e-gui had already been listed as one of the common ghosts that could appear to people.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Daybook
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5
In the Chinese sutras, translators rendered Indian ideas of ghosts, deities, spirits, or demons by either using the terms gui and guishen or by transliterating the terms using Chinese characters as phonetic signs.
“Without exhausting all the examples, sufg7Fce it to say that in the Chinese sutras, the translators rendered the Indian ideas of ghosts, deities, spirits, or demons by either using the terms gui and guishen or by transliterating the terms using Chinese characters as phonetic signs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5
In addition to preta/e-gui, many more Sanskrit terms were given meaningful Chinese names representing various special qualities or abilities, for evil or for good.
“In addition to the most common preta , or e-gui ( 餓鬼 ) in Chinese translation, many more were also given meaningful Chinese names. These translations, similar to the Hungry Ghost, represent various special qualities or abilities, for evil or for good.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5
In the Foshuo jianwang jing, the term soul/spirit (hunshen) is used to denote the ghost of a dead human being, as a contrast to tianlong guishen, the spiritual beings.
“Moreover, the term soul/spirit ( hunshen ) is used to denote the ghost of the dead human being, as a contrast to the tianlong guishen , the spiritual beings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foshuo jianwang jing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4
When the term preta was translated as e-gui or hungry ghost in Chinese, it was not an invention but an adoption of a concept that had already existed in China long before Buddhism.
“However, when the term preta was translated as e-gui or hungry ghost in Chinese, it was not an invention but an adoption of a concept that had already existed in China long before the coming of Buddhism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ Abstract · p. 1
Buddhism came to China most likely as the practicing faith of merchants from the Western Regions, that is, Central Asia.
“Buddhism came to China most likely as the practicing faith of certain merchants from the Western Regions, that is, Central Asia.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract · p. 1
By accommodating the ghost into its discourse, Buddhism could be understood as transformed into an altered existence that began a new life in Chinese history.
“By doing so, Buddhism could also be understood as being transformed into an altered existence that began a new life in Chinese history.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisereasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 2
The usual equation of the English term 'ghost' and the Chinese term gui was not without some problem.
“The usual equation of the English term 'ghost' (and other related terms such as phantom, apparition, spirit, etc.) and the Chinese term gui ( 鬼 ) was not without some problem.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4
The translated Buddhist sutra's use of interchangeable gui and shen found connections with native Chinese conceptions that could have helped the acceptance of the sutra.
“In this way, the translated Buddhist sutra found certain connections with native Chinese conceptions that could have helped the acceptance of the sutra.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 2
The translators of these terms followed the Chinese usage of gui = guishen to denote spiritual beings.
“Apparently the translator of these terms followed the Chinese usage of gui = guishen to denote spiritual beings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4
Before the arrival of Buddhism, Chinese popular conception of the origin of ghosts was not related to any strong moral or ethical values.
“As I discuss further in the following, here is evidence to support the view that before the arrival of Buddhism, Chinese popular conception of the origin of ghosts was not related to any strong moral or ethical values.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 2
When translators of early Buddhist texts rendered Sanskrit terms of spiritual beings, both benevolent and malicious, using the same character gui, it inherited ambiguities that could affect readers' understanding of Chinese Buddhist sutras.
“Thus, when the translators of the early Buddhist texts rendered some Sanskrit terms of spiritual beings, both of benevolent and malicious nature, using the same character gui , it inherited the ambiguities of the term that could have some effect on the readers' understanding of the Chinese Buddhist sutras.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract · p. 2
To gain goodwill and support from ruling elites was vital for Buddhism to take root in Chinese society.
“They understood that to gain goodwill and support from the ruling elites was vital for them to take root in Chinese society.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Monks as Incarnation of Dharma · p. 7
A monk with high caliber of learning could expel malicious ghosts merely by his appearance, without casting a spell.
“Moreover, a monk with a high caliber of learning without even casting a spell could expel the malicious ghosts merely by his appearance”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Gaosengzhuan
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites T50, no. 2059: 339b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10
A more direct and easily understood way was chosen to represent Buddhism as a superior power that people could rely on.
“Thus, a more direct and easily understood way was chosen to represent Buddhism as a superior power that people could rely on.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Using Sacred Objects and Performing Rituals · p. 7
One can rely on certain sacred objects that could deter the encroachment of ghosts and spirits.
“One can also rely on certain sacred objects that could deter the encroachment of ghosts and spirits”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites T8, no. 224: 435c
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9
There was no lack of evidence for a clear pro-Buddhist position, e.g., Records of Dark Signs.
“There was of course no lack of evidence for a clear pro-Buddhist position, and we could look for it in such works as the Records of Dark Signs ( Mingxiang ji 冥祥記 ).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Campany 2012b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9
The recognition of both Daoist and Buddhist power to exorcise ghosts allows us to detect the reality of the religious mentality of the people at that time.
“It is exactly because of this recognition of both the Daoist and Buddhist power to exorcise ghosts, instead of straightforwardly supporting one and denouncing the other, that we could detect the reality of the religious mentality of the people at that time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The stories and texts cited are representative of the beliefs and practices of the people at the time.
- Premisecitation§ Calling Names and Reciting Sutras · p. 7
Spell casting appears to be a well-established practice in early Buddhist texts.
“As for exorcist acts mentioned in early Buddhist texts, spell casting appears to be a well-established practice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Kieschnick 1997: 84-87
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Gaosengzhuan
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10
Baolin's ideas have a close affinity to the traditional Chinese concept of the origin of ghosts and demons found in Daybook since the third century BCE.
“We can see a close afg7Fnity of Baolin's ideas to the traditional Chinese concept of the origin of ghosts and demons that could be found already in Daybook ever since the third century BCE .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yan 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 8
Direct competition and confrontation between monks and Daoists were part of the stories to demonstrate the power of Buddhism.
“Sometimes direct competition and confrontation between the monks and the Daoists were part of the stories to demonstrate the power of Buddhism.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Calling Names and Reciting Sutras · p. 7
Rhymed chants (jie/gatha) in Buddhist texts were often employed as exorcistic spells.
“The ubiquitous ' jie 偈 '(skt. gatha ) or rhymed chants in Buddhist texts, although a vehicle to convey Buddhist teachings, were often employed as exorcistic spells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kieschnick 1997: 90-92
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10
The consequence of not obeying Baolin's order was destruction by Buddhist gods and divine army.
“The consequence of not obeying his order was destruction by the Buddhist gods and divine army.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yan 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Monks as Incarnation of Dharma · p. 8
The unintended effect of the Falang story shows that when Buddhism was making its way into Chinese society, it was not always clear to the common people what the 'true way' should have been.
“The unintended effect of the story, however, shows that when Buddhism was making its way into Chinese society, it was not always clear to the common people what the 'true way' should have been.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6
These abilities to control or tame ghosts were for Buddhist propagators one of the justifications to enter Chinese society and compete for legitimacy in people's lives.
“These abilities to control or to tame the ghosts was for the Buddhist propagators one of the justig7Fcations to enter into Chinese society and compete for legitimacy in the life of people.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6
Texts outside the sutras written in Chinese by Chinese authors propagating Buddhism carried important functions in pushing for the acceptance of Buddhism in society.
“For this purpose, texts outside of the sutras written in Chinese by Chinese authors propagating Buddhism also carried out some important functions in pushing for the acceptance of Buddhism in society.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Using Sacred Objects and Performing Rituals · p. 7
To make oneself clean is efficacious in preventing the harming of ghosts and spirits.
“To make oneself clean, for example, is efg7Fcacious in preventing the harming of the ghosts and spirits.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites T8, no. 224: 435c
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 8
To gain faith from the people, monks needed to allow devious spirits to exist and even cooperate with them.
“That is to say, to gain faith from the people, the monks needed to allow those devious spirits to exist and even to cooperate with them.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Monks as Incarnation of Dharma · p. 8
The story of the possessed nun indicates that people around her did not know how to distinguish the 'true way' from the 'devious way.'
“The fact that the possessed nun was g7Frst thought to be a wise and enlightened Buddhist clergy indicates that people around her did not know how to distinguish the 'true way' from the 'devious way.'”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Monks as Incarnation of Dharma · p. 7
Monks were thought to have possessed exorcistic power, as the ability to recite sutras and cast spells was internalized and became part of the essence of a monk.
“The monks themselves, moreover, were thought to have possessed exorcistic power, as the ability to recite sutras and to cast spells was internalized and became part of the essence of a monk.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9
Even if the story was written to proselytize Buddhism, it unwittingly revealed the religious environment of the time.
“Yet our reading shows that even if the story was written down with the intention of helping to proselytize Buddhism, it unwittingly revealed the religious environment of the time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The unintended effects of stories reveal the actual religious environment.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9
The story indicates it was possible for a Buddhist adept to follow other forms of belief when solving a ghostly attack.
“The story clearly indicates that it was possible for a Buddhist adept to follow other forms of belief when it comes to solving the problem of a ghostly attack.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10
An extraordinary document written by Baolin shows how Buddhists tried to employ concepts of indigenous popular cults to demonstrate the power of Buddhism.
“In fact, an extraordinary document, written by a monk named Baolin, shows how Buddhists tried to employ the concepts of the indigenous popular cults as a means to demonstrate the power of Buddhism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10
Baolin wrote an 'Edict to Mount Tai' in the fashion of an imperial denouncement against rebels.
“As a learned person active during the Song Dynasty (420-479 CE ), Baolin once wrote an 'Edict to Mount Tai' in the fashion of an imperial denouncement against rebels.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yan 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6
From various proselytic texts we can deduce the Buddhist ways to expel ghosts and demons employed by monks when they came into contact with the Chinese people.
“It is from the various proselytic texts that we could deduce the Buddhist ways to expel ghosts and demons employed by the monks when they came into contact with the Chinese people.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 8
There are a wealth of literary works, mostly collections of stories, written or edited by Buddhist adepts to propagate Buddhist teachings.
“In addition to what the Buddhists themselves wrote in the sutras and biographies about the power of the monks to overcome ghosts and spirits, there are also a wealth of literary works, mostly in the form of collection of stories, that were written or edited by Buddhist adepts to propagate Buddhist teachings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Campany 1996b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6
The sutras introduced into the Chinese mental world new elements: the purpose was to inform readers that all these ghosts or demons could be controlled by the power of the Buddhist faith, as manifested in devotional activities.
“Having gone through the translation problems related to the conception of ghost/ gui in the Buddhist sutras, we can see that the sutras introduced into the Chinese mental world some new elements: the purpose, if one may make a very general observation, was to inform the readers that all these ghosts or demons could be controlled by the power of the Buddhist faith, as manifested in all sorts of”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10
Instead, Baolin utilized indigenous concepts of the origin of animal spirits (wuguai) to explain why local deities are false gods.
“Instead he utilized the indigenous concepts of the origin of animal spirits, which could be called wuguai ( 物怪 ) according to Chinese custom, to explain why the local deities are false gods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 12
The overlapping with Daoism in compromising with indigenous ideas of ghosts would be the common ground for the development of 'popular religion' in later Chinese history.
“The overlapping with Daoism in compromising with the indigenous ideas of ghosts, on the other hand, would be the common ground for the development of the p. 181 40 p. 182 - 'popular religion' in later Chinese history.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The concept of 'popular religion' in later Chinese history developed from this common ground.
- Interpretationnone given§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 12
Daoism employed the idea of revenging ghosts in the world to persuade people to follow the lead of the Daoist priest in exorcising ghosts.
“Daoism, on the other hand, employed the idea of the revenging ghosts in the world to persuade people to follow the lead of the Daoist priest in exorcising the ghosts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
In Daoism, as inherited from early Chinese conception, only those that died of unnatural or untimely death would come back to haunt the living.
“In Daoism, as inherited from the early Chinese conception, only those that died of unnatural or untimely death would come back to the world and haunt the living.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
Compared with Buddhist idea of origin of ghosts, especially hungry ghost, Buddhist ghosts originated from morally degenerated human beings.
“Compared with the Buddhist idea of the origin of ghosts, especially the hungry ghost, one could say that in general, the Buddhist ghosts originated from morally degenerated human beings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
In general, ghosts that could appear to people in pre-Buddhist Chinese sources usually originated from those who died an untimely death, were killed unjustly, or did not receive a proper burial.
“In general, the ghosts that could appear to people usually originated from those who died an untimely death, were killed unjustly, or did not receive a proper burial.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Poo 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Poo 2009b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 12
Buddhism used the idea of a suffering ghost in Hell to encourage people to follow the correct path and lead a just life.
“Buddhism used the idea of a suffering ghost in Hell to encourage people to follow the correct path and lead a just life lest they fall into that miserable condition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
To become a ghost is to be punished for one's own moral deficiency, such as being greedy, jealous, manipulative, stingy, flattering, or deceiving.
“To become a ghost is to be punished for one's own moral deg7Fciency, such as being greedy, jealous, manipulative, stingy, attering, or deceiving, and so forth.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
There is a significant difference between Buddhism and Daoism in the origins of ghosts.
“Here one could sense a very signig7Fcant difference between Buddhism and Daoism: not by looking at their purported tenets, but simply by looking at these different origins of ghosts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The distinction between Buddhist and Daoist ghosts is clear and consistent across sources.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10
Baolin's attack on local cults did not deny their existence as mere illusions of the mind, as expounded in Foshuo pumenpinjing.
“The intriguing point is that Baolin's attack on the local cults did not really deny their existence as being mere illusions of the mind, as expounded in the Foshuo pumenpinjing quoted previously.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10
Without first letting these beliefs exist, they would have a hard time engaging in a dialogue understood by common people.
“Without g7Frst letting these beliefs to exist, they would have a hard time engaging in a dialogue that could begin to be understood by the common people.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 12
In the process of persuasion, both had to make some compromise with existing popular ideas of ghosts.
“In the process of persuasion, both had to make some compromise with the existing popular ideas of ghosts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
Many human ghosts in early Daoist texts were ghosts of people who died of different situations, such as violence, accidents, illnesses, or old age.
“In the same spirit, many of the human ghosts mentioned in early Daoist texts were ghosts of those people that died of different situations, such as violence, accidents, illnesses, or even simply old age.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Taishang zhengyi zhouguijing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 12
The different understanding of the origin of ghosts in Buddhism and Daoism was a significant factor in the proselytic strategies they adopted.
“The different understanding of the origin of ghosts in Buddhism and Daoism was also a signig7Fcant factor in the proselytic strategies that they adopted.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
Their malicious behavior, if it happens, originated from their desire of revenge for wrongs they suffered.
“Their malicious behavior, if it happens that way, originated from their desire of revenge for the wrongs that they suffered.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
They did not become evil ghosts because of their own moral deficiency while alive on earth.
“One thing for certain is that they did not become evil ghosts because of their own moral deg7Fciency while alive on earth.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11
These ghosts became ghosts not because of their own characters or behaviors, but because of the situations that caused their death.
“That is to say, these ghosts became ghosts not because of their own characters, or their behaviors, but because of the situations, some more precarious than others, that caused their death.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Probably not a substantial claim. 49
- It may state two separate claims as one. 43
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4The hungry ghost is a general term referring to a large number of ghosts who fell into the ghostly condition for various wrongdoings and suffered different miseries; being eternally hungry was but one of the sufferings.
“The hungry ghost, therefore, is a general term that refers to a large number of ghosts who fell into the ghostly condition for the various wrongdoings that they committed, and suffered from different kinds of miseries and hardships. Being eternally in a state of hunger was but one of the sufferings that some had to endure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 2In the Daoxing banrojing, the term guishen refers to harmful ghosts, and the method to drive them away was to apply the magical mani-bead.
“For example, in a passage found in one of the earliest translated sutras, the Daoxing banrojing ( 道行般若經 ), the term guishen obviously refers to the harmful ghosts. The method to drive away these ghosts was to apply the magical mani -bead:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Daoxing banrojing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4In the Foshuo guiwen mulian jing, the bodhisattva Mulian explained the reasons why a person would become a hungry ghost after death, and the punishment for wrongdoings was rebirth as a hungry ghost and suffering in Hell.
“In the text, the bodhisattva Mulian explained the reasons why a person would become a hungry ghost ( preta ) after death. The punishment for the wrongdoings was for the person to be reborn as a hungry ghost and suffer all kinds of pains in Hell ( 地獄 diyu ).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foshuo guiwen mulian jing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
Findingown data§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 2In Chinese Buddhist sutras, the term gui is used to denote various beings: dead humans and demons with Sanskrit terms yakṣa, rākṣasa, and vītala.
“In the Chinese Buddhist sutras, the term gui is used to denote various beings: the dead humans and various kinds of demons with such original Sanskrit terms as yakṣa (spirits of the dead who y swiftly, or demons who devour humans), ra kṣasa (a kind of man-eating demon), or vita la (a demon that resides in a dead body to make it rise).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 3In early sutras such as Banzhou sanmei jing, authors employed conceptions in tune with traditional Chinese, particularly Confucian, social ethics, and warned readers not to worship ghosts and spirits.
“In some of the early sutras, such as Banzhou sanmei jing ( 般舟三昧經 ), the authors employed conceptions that were in tune with traditional Chinese, in particular Confucian, social ethics, and warned the reader not to worship ghosts and spirits:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Banzhou sanmei jing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingnone given§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4One of the most often mentioned human ghosts in Buddhist sutras was the hungry ghost (preta), people punished in Hell for wanton and greedy behavior when alive.
“One of the most often mentioned human ghosts in the Buddhist sutras was the hungry ghost ( preta ), that is, those people who received punishment in Hell for their wanton and greedy behavior when alive.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown data§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5The term gui was not the only term used by translators of sutras to render human ghosts or spiritual beings; the term hun/soul was often used to denote the ghost of a deceased human being.
“It should also be noticed that the term gui was not the only term used by the translators of sutras to render the human ghosts or spirituals beings. I refer to the term hun /soul ( 魂 ), which is often used to denote the ghost of a deceased human being.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Findingnone given§ Abstract · p. 1A number of famous monks in this early stage were descendants of Central Asian merchants who settled in China.
“A number of famous monks in this early stage were descendants of Central Asian merchants who settled in China.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone given§ Abstract · p. 1Early Buddhists incorporated Chinese conceptions of ghost by using the terms gui-guishen interchangeably in the translation of sutras when the original Indian terms were demons of nonhuman origins, creating an impression that Buddhism could deal with ghosts in the Chinese sense.
“As early Buddhists incorporated the Chinese conceptions of ghost by using the terms gui-guishen interchangeably in the translation of sutras when the original Indian terms were demons of nonhuman origins, it created an impression that Buddhism could deal with the ghosts in the Chinese sense.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingreasoning§ Abstract · p. 2Early Buddhist monks utilized indigenous Chinese conceptions to interpret Buddhist tenets, translate texts, and argue with Chinese intellectuals using Chinese terminologies to propagate Buddhism.
“For this, they utilized the indigenous conceptions to interpret the tenet of their belief, to translate their texts, and even to argue with the Chinese intellectuals using Chinese terminologies to propagate Buddhism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ Abstract · p. 2The Tang Dynasty Fayuan zhulin contains a large number of ghost stories, many excerpts from Six Dynasty anomaly works aimed at propagating Buddhist teachings.
“The Tang Dynasty encyclopedic text Fayuan zhulin ( 法苑珠林 ) contains a large number of ghost stories, many of which are excerpts from the Six Dynasty anomaly works that were aimed at propagating Buddhist teachings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fayuan zhulin
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 3In the sutras, the Eight Kinds of Beings are mentioned as tianlong guishen, so guishen here refers to all spiritual beings, including gods, dragons, yakṣa, and hungry ghost, without necessarily carrying an evil connotation.
“The sutras often mention the Eight Kinds of Beings ( babuzhong ; 八 部眾 , Skt. aṣṭa-gatyaḥ, aṣṭauparṣadaḥ ) as tianlong guishen ( 天龍鬼神 ); thus clearly the term guishen here refers to all the spiritual beings, that is, gods, dragons, yakṣa , the hungry ghost ( preta ), and so forth, without necessarily carrying any evil connotation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingnone given§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4Various evil or wrong behaviors that could condemn a person to become a hungry ghost after death are given in many occasions in the sutras, as one of the most important messages Buddhist monks wished to convey to common people.
“These various evil or wrong behaviors that could condemn a person to become a hungry ghost after death are given in many occasions in the sutras, as it was one of the most important messages that the Buddhist monks wished to convey to the common people.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4In the Daybook 'Exorcism' passage, a ghost holding a bamboo rice basket and asking for food is identified as a hungry ghost, illustrating the idea that a person who died of hunger could become a hungry ghost constantly asking for food.
“If a ghost always holds a bamboo rice basket and enters into people's houses, saying, 'Give me food!'-this is the hungry ghost ( 餓鬼 e-gui ). Throw a shoe at it, then it will desist.”
- Also stated in: § The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4 · hedged
“This illustrates the idea that when a person died of hunger, he could become a hungry ghost, constantly asking for food.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Daybook
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Also stated in: § The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4 · hedged
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingnone given§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 6Sometimes transliterated terms are attached with gui or guishen to remind the reader of the nature of these beings.
“Sometimes the transliterated terms are attached with gui or guishen to remind the reader of the nature of these beings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingnone given§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6Besides word of mouth, the way to spread the message was by circulating stories and producing texts containing those stories to all social levels.
“Besides by word of mouth, the way to spread the message was by circulating stories and producing texts containing those stories to all social levels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6These practical exorcism actions can be divided into several kinds: first, worshipping the Buddha and Bodhisattvas by calling their names or reciting the sutras; second, reciting exorcistic spells contained in the sutras; third, using sacred objects or performing rituals; fourth, monks with deep wisdom who had mastered the Dharma could become the incarnation of the power of Buddha and expel evil
“These practical actions could basically be divided into several kinds: g7Frst, worshipping the Buddha and Bodhisattvas by calling their names or reciting the sutras; second, reciting exorcistic spells contained in the sutras; third, using some sacred objects or performing some rituals; fourth, monks with deep wisdom who had mastered the Dharma could become the incarnation of the power of Buddha”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5In the Foshuo anan sishi jing, a passage states that when a person was first born, the soul (hunshen) came as a void and relied on the ether of the parents' passion to form the body, and at the end of life the soul does not extinguish but seeks another life.
“When a person was g7Frst born, the soul ( hunshen ) came as a void, and relied on the ether of the passion of the parents to form his/her own body. … At the end of life, the soul ( hunshen ) does not extinguish, but seeks another life.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foshuo anan sishi jing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5In the Foshuo jianwang jing, the Buddha told the king that if he rules unjustly, when he dies his ghost (hunshen) will enter Hell at Mount Tai, and if he rules justly, he shall go up to heaven.
“When ofg7Fcials and subjects as well as common people all have complains, and the king's rule is unjust so that the world is full of anger, when he dies his ghost ( hunshen 魂神 ) will surely enter Hell at Mount Tai, and it would be too late to regret. When the king rules the country with justice and propriety, the subjects and people will praise his virtue and the four seas with one heart, the tian”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Foshuo jianwang jing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4In the Za piyujing story, the king's use of 'great god/shen' to refer to the 'great fearsome ghost/gui' could be interpreted as the king's wish to be courteous and pacify the ghost.
“It is signig7Fcant that the king should use the expression 'great god/ shen ' to refer to the 'great fearsome ghost/ gui , ' which could be interpreted to indicate the king's wish to be courteous and to pacify the ghost.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Premisecitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 3The idea that gui/guishen mainly signify spiritual beings without inherent nature is similar to Mozi's statement that ghosts and spirits of past and present are of three kinds: ghosts of Heaven, mountains and rivers, and men who died.
“This is rather similar to the idea of the third century BCE philosopher Mozi, who once commented that 'The ghosts and spirits ( guishen ) of past and present are of three kinds only: the ghosts ( gui ) of Heaven, the ghosts ( gui ) of the mountains and rivers, and the ghosts ( gui ) of men who have died.'”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mozi
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4The Buddhist hungry ghost is a punishment for the sinner; the Daybook hungry ghost is a reflection of the condition of the ghost before the person died.
“The Buddhist hungry ghost is a punishment for the sinner; the Daybook hungry ghost is a re ection of the condition of the ghost before the person died.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisenone given§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 2The term ghost in the Western world usually refers to spirits of dead human beings, whereas gui could include both spirits of human and nonhuman beings.
“the term ghost-in the Western world-usually refers to the spirits of the dead human beings, whereas gui could include both the spirits of human and nonhuman beings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Abstract · p. 1The aim of these Central Asian merchants was most likely doing business rather than spreading religious faith.
“The aim of these merchants was most likely doing business rather than spreading religious faith.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 3The Daybook (rishu) from a third-century BCE tomb was used to address people of the middle-lower echelons in society and could represent to a certain degree commonly accepted conceptions.
“The text was used to address people of the middle-lower echelons in society, and thus could represent to a certain degree the commonly accepted conceptions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Daybook
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4The translator of the Za piyujing seems to have agreed that there was no basic difference between the nature of ghost and god; the only difference was the power they possessed, with a shen-god being more powerful than a ghost.
“It seems that the translator agreed with the idea that there was no basic difference between the nature of ghost and god: the only difference was the power that they possessed. A shen -god would be more powerful than a ghost.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 3The guishen mentioned in the Banzhou sanmei jing warning refers to malicious ghosts and spirits.
“It should be clear that the guishen mentioned in this context refers to the malicious ghosts and spirits.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract · p. 1As Central Asian merchants came into contact with and settled among the Chinese population, they created opportunities for the Chinese to become familiar with their foreign behavior and faith, and for themselves and their families to learn Chinese ways.
“As they came into contact with and even settled down among the Chinese population, they created the opportunities for the Chinese to be familiar with their foreign behavior and their faith, and for themselves and their family to learn the Chinese way of thinking and living.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract · p. 1When Buddhist monks began actively introducing Buddhism into China, they were definitely not the first Buddhists to have come to China, and they must have had certain knowledge of the main features of Chinese cultural tradition.
“Thus when Buddhist monks, be they from Central Asia or India, or descendants of Central Asian merchants, or Chinese converts, began to actively introduce Buddhism into China, they were deg7Fnitely not the g7Frst Buddhists to have come to China, and they surely must have had certain knowledge of the main features of Chinese cultural tradition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisereasoning§ Abstract · p. 2The second major task was to confront popular beliefs and show that Buddhist monks could provide reliable services to expel evil spirits and ghosts and ensure a happy future.
“Second, the Buddhist monks also needed to confront those popular beliefs in society that people were engaged in or accustomed to, and tried to show how they, the Buddhist monks, could provide people with reliable services, to expel evil spirits and ghosts from their lives, and to ensure a happy future, whether in this world or in the netherworld.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The problems Buddhism faced when the earliest monks introduced it into China can be divided into two kinds: persuading the cultured elite and rulers, and winning the trust of the commoners.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5Theoretically, when a hun-soul falls into Hell because of its own wrongdoings while alive, it could become one of the hungry ghosts condemned to suffer in Hell.
“Theoretically, when this hun -soul falls into Hell because of its own wrongdoings while alive, it could become one of the hungry ghosts who were condemned to suffer in the Hell.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4The assumption behind the king's expression is that a ghost was considered a spiritual being that under certain circumstances could also be called a god.
“The assumption behind this expression, then, would be that a ghost was considered as a spiritual being that, under certain circumstances, could also be called a 'god.'”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4The interchangeable use of gui and shen in the Za piyujing could have been a deliberate choice made by the translator.
“We do not know the wordings of the original Sanskrit, but the interchangeable use of gui and shen here could have been a deliberate choice made by the translator.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 4For a Chinese reader, the interchangeable use of gui and shen in the Za piyujing story should be familiar and acceptable.
“In other words, for a Chinese reader, the interchangeable use of gui and shen in this story should be quite familiar and acceptable.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 8These collections belonged to a general literary trend during the post-Han Dynasty period, including stories about ghosts, spirits, and extraordinary events, regarded as the initial period of the growth of the fiction genre in Chinese literature.
“These collections of stories belonged to a general literary trend during the post-Han Dynasty period, which included various stories about ghosts, spirits, and extraordinary events and are regarded as the initial period of the growth of the g7Fction genre in the history of Chinese literature.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Campany 1996b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 6The collected effect of these translations regarding ghosts and spirits produced two effects translators might not have foreseen: use of Chinese terms gui, shen, hun might have allowed readers familiarity and connection with the new belief system; use of transliteration for names of ghosts and spirits retains a mysterious aura that could create awe and respect for the sutras.
“In the end, however, the collected effect of these translations regarding the rendering of ghosts and spirits produced two effects that the translators might not have foreseen. On one hand, their use of the Chinese terms such as gui, shen , and hun might have allowed the readers to have a certain sense of familiarity and thus connection with the new belief system; on the other hand, the use of”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5The Mount Tai Hell in the Foshuo jianwang jing would be an adaptation or interpolation of the Chinese translator, for the original Indian sutra could not possibly have contained this tradition.
“This again would be the adaptation or interpolation of the Chinese translator, for the original Indian sutra could not possibly have contained this tradition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 6The sutras were translated into Chinese by various translators-some foreign monks, some Chinese-over a long period, which explains the unsystematic way terminologies were translated or rendered into Chinese script.
“The sutras, as it is well known, were translated into Chinese by various translators-some were foreign monks, some were Chinese-and over a long period time. This explains the unsystematic way that terminologies were translated or rendered into Chinese script.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 6Eventually, terms such as e-gui (preta), yiecha (yakṣa), or losha (rākṣasa) would become part of Chinese terminologies of daily use.
“Eventually, these terms, such as the e-gui ( preta ), the yiecha ( yakṣa ), or losha ( ra kṣasa ), would become part of the Chinese terminologies of daily use.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5For the translator of the Foshuo jianwang jing, hun was the equivalent of human ghost, while tianlong guishen was a term that referred to spiritual beings in general.
“This seems to suggest that for the translator, it was hun that was the equivalent of human ghost, while tianlong guishen was a term that referred to spiritual beings in general.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9Bizhi's exorcistic actions were effective against the ghost, so the ghost complained to the heavenly court.
“In other words, Bizhi's exorcistic actions were actually effective against the ghost, so that the ghost complained to the heavenly court.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationcitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10In the sutras, a more sophisticated explanation of the origin of ghosts could be expounded.
“In the sutras, a more sophisticated explanation of the origin of ghosts could be expounded, as the following example from Foshuo pumenpinjing 佛 說普門品經 shows:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10When facing the common people, the appeal to philosophical reflection of a person's inner self was probably not an effective way of proselytizing.
“When facing the common people in society, however, the appeal to philosophical re ection of a person's inner self was probably not an effective way of proselytizing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5The translation in the Foshuo jianwang jing appears to have employed traditional Confucian persuasion in Buddha's advice to the king.
“The translation appears to have employed traditional Confucian persuasion in Buddha's advice to the king.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9Buddhism and Daoism acted as two opposing powers, each protecting its true followers.
“Thus, it appears that Buddhism and Daoism acted as two opposing powers, each protecting its true followers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6The long-term effect would be for the general educated public to have more contact with Buddhist monks' activities through stories and anecdotes, and eventually the messages would be absorbed by even larger populations as collecting, telling, and circulating stories formed a reciprocal circle in society.
“The long-term effect would be for the general educated public to have more contact with the activities of the Buddhist monks, through stories and anecdotes. Eventually the messages carried by these writings would be absorbed by even larger populations as the process of collecting, telling, and circulating of stories formed a reciprocal circle in society.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6Because these non-sutra texts were not limited to the inner circle of adepts and monks, they could circulate more widely among the literary circles of the educated who might not have direct affiliation with Buddhism.
“Because these texts were not sutras that were limited to the inner circle of the adepts and monks, they could be circulating more widely in society in and among the literary circles of the educated, who might not have direct afg7Fliation with Buddhism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5Because the ghosts and demons in the original Sanskrit all have their meanings, mere transliteration might not be enough to produce the effect sometimes needed for the text.
“Because the ghosts and demons in the original Sanskrit all have their meanings, mere transliteration might not be enough to produce the effect that sometimes was needed for the text.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6All these exorcistic actions had to be tested and proven effective to the people.
“All these had to be tested and proven effective to the people.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9The story was included in the Tang Dynasty Buddhist encyclopedia Fayuan zhulin, so it must have been regarded as a story that could propagate the effectiveness of Buddhist power.
“We could surmise that because this story was included in the Tang Dynasty Buddhist encyclopedia Fayuan zhulin , it must have been regarded as a story that could propagate the effectiveness of Buddhist power.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown data§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9The story did not deny the power of the Daoist priest to curb the ghost, nor explicitly denounce Daoist rituals; instead it recognized the effectiveness of the Daoist ritual of sending a petition to the heavenly court.
“Yet the story did not deny the power of the Daoist priest to curb the ghost, nor did it explicitly denounce the Daoist rituals. Instead it recognized the effectiveness of the Daoist ritual of sending a petition to the heavenly court, which was basically Daoist, because the court accepted the petition of the Daoist priest.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 8The Daoxian story shows that the monk could control local spirits (dragons) and utilize indigenous cults to promote his reputation.
“The story shows that not only could the monk control the local spirits (the dragons), he also could utilize the indigenous cults to promote his reputation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6The proselytizing intention of the texts should be recognized.
“The proselytizing intention of the texts should be recognized.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10Within Buddhism, different sources could carry different explanations and interpretations regarding the origin of ghosts and the way to expel them.
“It should be noted that within Buddhism, different sources could carry different explanations and interpretations regarding the origin of ghosts and the way to expel them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6When asking which faith is more powerful, concrete results would have to be provided to demonstrate the power of these faiths and convince people that one is greater than the other.
“It can be seen that when it comes to asking which faith is more powerful, concrete results would have to be provided to demonstrate the power of these faiths and to convince the people that one is greater than the other.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 8Among Buddhist-inclined works, we can observe competition between Daoist and Buddhist proselytes.
“Among the number of Buddhist-inclined works, we can also observe the competition between the Daoist and Buddhist proselytes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ Monks as Incarnation of Dharma · p. 8The intended purpose of the Falang story was to demonstrate that the power of Falang, a true possessor of Buddhist dharma, was superior to that of the false ghost.
“The intended purpose of the story, presumably, was to demonstrate that the power of Falang, a true possessor of the wisdom of Buddhist dharma, was superior to that of the false ghost.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationown data§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9The haunting ghost account from Shu Yi ji demonstrates the religious mentality of the people during this period of religious competition.
“This rather long and complicated account of a haunting ghost fully demonstrates the religious mentality of the people during this period of religious competition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The stories and texts cited are representative of the beliefs and practices of the people at the time.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10Baolin addresses the Record Keeper of the Eastern Mountain and pronounces him a false god, a minor ghost.
“He further addresses the Record Keeper of the Eastern Mountain, to whom the Edict was dispatched, and pronounces him a false god, a minor ghost:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yan 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ Monks as Incarnation of Dharma · p. 8The Falang story symbolizes the difficulties Buddhism encountered in its incursion into China.
“In a way, this story symbolizes the difg7Fculties that Buddhism encountered in the process of their incursion into China.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Calling Names and Reciting Sutras · p. 6The Lotus Sutra assures that by the power of Avalokitesvara, ghosts and demons will be curtailed.
“the Lotus Sutra ( Fahua jing 法華經 ) assures the readers that by the power of Avalokitesvara, the omnipresence of ghosts and demons will be curtailed”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites T9, No. 263: 128
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisenone given§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5The Hell that the king will go to was located at Mount Tai, known to the Chinese since the Han Dynasty as a place where ghosts of deceased people would congregate.
“The Hell that the king will go to, should he fail as a good ruler, was located at Mount Tai, known to the Chinese since the Han Dynasty as a place where the ghosts of deceased people would congregate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown data§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 9The heavenly court was in favor of the ghost, which is why the second ghost instructed Bizhi to seek asylum in Buddhism.
“It turned out that the heavenly court was in favor of the ghost, which is why the second ghost, a messenger from the court, came to instruct Bizhi to go back to seek asylum in Buddhism.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5The term hun seems to be a neutral designation of the state of post-mortem existence of a person, while the use of gui would most likely associate the ghost with certain actions or intentions that could affect the living.
“In other words, the term hun seems to be a neutral designation of the state of post-mortem existence of a person, while the use of gui would most likely associate the ghost with certain actions or intentions that could affect the living.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10The basic thrust of Baolin's discourse was that so-called deities in popular cults, including Mount Tai, were not true gods but incarnations of evil ghosts, demons, and spirits of animals.
“The basic thrust of his discourse was that the so-called deities in the popular cults, including those on the Mount Tai, were not true gods but incarnations of all sorts of evil ghosts, demons, and spirits of animals:”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yan 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ The Taming of Ghosts in Early Buddhism · p. 6In the process, Buddhist ideas would come across indigenous beliefs such as Daoism or other folk cults, resulting in mutual influencing and borrowing, and even confrontation or competition.
“In the process, of course, Buddhist ideas would come across the indigenous beliefs such as Daoism or other folk cults, and resulted in mutual in uencing and borrowing, and even confrontation or competition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Calling Names and Reciting Sutras · p. 7Fotudeng was known to be able to recite spells and control ghosts and spirits.
“The famous monk Fotudeng ( 佛圖澄 d. 348 CE ) was known to be able to recite spells and control ghosts and spirits.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kieschnick 1997: 84-87
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 8When Early Buddhist monks tried to gain acceptance in Chinese communities, it was not enough to demonstrate ability to exorcise ghosts; they also needed to show their power was stronger than indigenous cults.
“Thus, when Early Buddhist monks tried to gain their acceptance in Chinese communities, it was not enough simply to demonstrate their ability to exorcise the ghosts and evil spirits. They also needed to show that their power was stronger than that of those indigenous cults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Term Ghost/Gui in the Buddhist Texts · p. 5From the contexts in which hunshen appears, it refers to the immaterial soul of the deceased that did not seem to have the malicious intentions or abilities that gui-ghost would have.
“From the contexts in which the term hunshen appear, one could also observe that it refers to the immaterial soul of the deceased that did not seem to have the malicious intentions or abilities that gui -ghost would have.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Monks as Incarnation of Dharma · p. 7By the mere presence of a monk, ghosts would be deterred and retreated from wrongdoings.
“Thus, by the mere presence of a monk, the ghosts would be deterred and retreated from the wrongdoings that they were conducting.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ Calling Names and Reciting Sutras · p. 7Tanwuchen was described as having extraordinary ability to exorcise ghosts.
“Another monk, Tanwuchen ( 曇無讖 Dharmakṣema, 385-433 CE ) was also described as having extraordinary ability to exorcise ghosts”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Gaosengzhuan
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites T50, no. 2059: 383
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Calling Names and Reciting Sutras · p. 7Buddhist scriptures in general were often regarded as having magical power and could be used to exorcise ghosts and spirits.
“Otherwise, Buddhist scriptures in general were often regarded as having magical power and could be used as a tool to exorcise ghosts and spirits.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kieschnick 1997: 90-92
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10Buddhist monks needed to demonstrate superior power over Daoists and also recognize the existence and cosmological assumptions about origins of ghosts in the wider populace.
“On one hand, they need to demonstrate their superior power over the Daoist; on the other hand, they also need to recognize the existence and even the cosmological assumptions about the origins of ghosts and spirits in the wider populace.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11Although everyone became a ghost after death, only those with unfinished business with the world would come back to haunt people or do good.
“In other words, although everyone became a ghost after death, only those with ung7Fnished business with the world, for good or for bad, would come back to haunt people, or even to do good.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11The deed of Daoist ghosts reflect the injustice they suffered on earth; the deed of Buddhist ghosts reflect the injustice they themselves had committed.
“The deed of Daoist ghosts re ect the injustice they suffered on earth; the deed of Buddhist ghosts re ect the injustice they themselves had committed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11These haunting ghosts might perform evil deeds, or they might not.
“These haunting ghosts might perform evil deeds, or they might not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 12It was by allowing the indigenous idea of ghosts to exist, whether by translating various spirits and demons as gui ghost, or by engaging in dialogues with indigenous local deities, that Buddhism was able to incorporate pre-Buddhist Chinese ghosts into its system, a system that could also be regarded as 'Chinese Buddhism.'
“It was by allowing the indigenous idea of ghosts to exist, whether by translating the various spirits and demons as guighost, or by engaging in dialogues with the indigenous local deities, that Buddhism was able to incorporate the pre-Buddhist Chinese ghosts into its system, a system that could also be regarded as 'Chinese Buddhism.'”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The translation of various spirits as gui ghost is a form of compromise.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ Competition with Indigenous Belief Systems · p. 10This example gives insight into the nature of the battleground Buddhist monks engaged in.
“This example again allows us to gain some insight into the nature of the battleground that Buddhist monks engaged in.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ The Origins of Ghosts in Buddhism Compared to That of Chinese Conceptions · p. 11The Taishang zhengyi zhouguijing provided lists of ghosts that indicate their origins.
“One example from the Taishang zhengyi zhouguijing 太上正一咒鬼經 , a Daoist text composed probably during the Six Dynasties period, provided several extravagant lists of ghosts that indicate their origins.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Taishang zhengyi zhouguijing
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
The paper relies on this without support.
The problems Buddhism faced when the earliest monks introduced it into China can be divided into two kinds: persuading the cultured elite and rulers, and winning the trust of the commoners.
“The problems that Buddhism faced when the earliest monks introduced it into China can be divided into two kinds: how to persuade the cultured elite class, including the rulers, and how to win over the trust of the commoners.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Chinese Buddhist texts analyzed in the chapter are representative of early Buddhist proselytizing efforts and of the ways early Buddhism addressed Chinese popular beliefs.
“It is this second aspect of the Buddhist effort, that is, their dealing with the Chinese traditional conceptions of ghost and belief in the validity of exorcistic rituals, that this chapter is devoted to.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The stories and texts cited are representative of the beliefs and practices of the people at the time.
“This rather long and complicated account of a haunting ghost fully demonstrates the religious mentality of the people during this period of religious competition.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The unintended effects of stories reveal the actual religious environment.
“Yet our reading shows that even if the story was written down with the intention of helping to proselytize Buddhism, it unwittingly revealed the religious environment of the time.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The distinction between Buddhist and Daoist ghosts is clear and consistent across sources.
“Here one could sense a very signig7Fcant difference between Buddhism and Daoism: not by looking at their purported tenets, but simply by looking at these different origins of ghosts.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The translation of various spirits as gui ghost is a form of compromise.
“whether by translating the various spirits and demons as guighost”
The paper relies on this without support.
The concept of 'popular religion' in later Chinese history developed from this common ground.
“would be the common ground for the development of the p. 181 40 p. 182 - 'popular religion' in later Chinese history.”
Citations
Metadata
- Authors
- Poo, M.-C.
- Corresponding author
- Poo, Mu-chou
- Venue
- Oxford Scholarship Online
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press
- Published
- 2017-06-22
- OpenAlex
- W4238340971
- Cited by
- 0
- References
- 0
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Study and Philosophy of Religion
- Keywords
- early Chinese Buddhism, ghosts, graphical user interface, demonology, folk religion
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