CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 0Indian and Buddhist StudiesHistorical and Architectural StudiesChinese history and philosophy

The DOI matches its Crossref record; none of the 21 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Adaptation and Assimilation of Buddhism in China as reflected in Monastic Architecture

Zhou, Yin·2017·Oxford Scholarship Online
DOI 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190278359.003.0014
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

This chapter takes Buddhist architecture as an example of the dynamic interchange between East and West and the compromise between the original Indian style and native Chinese architecture so as to help demonstrate the transformation process of Buddhism in China during the first through sixth centuries ce. This chapter tries to point out that early medieval Buddhist monasteries, particularly the official ones, were constructed following Indian and Central Asian designs. These foreign types of monasteries brought in a new kind of religious architecture to China, which was later fused into the preexisting architectural culture and evolved into the distinct layout of Buddhist temple adopting the traditional Chinese residential design. This is a concrete and material way to contribute to the understanding of the interaction between a new faith and an old society.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This chapter uses Buddhist monastic architecture to trace how Buddhism adapted and assimilated in China from roughly the first through sixth centuries CE. It argues that Indian and Central Asian monastery layouts and tower-shrine forms were introduced, then fused with native Chinese architectural and religious traditions, eventually producing the distinct Chinese Buddhist temple layout and storied pagoda.

Key findings

  • Early medieval Buddhist monasteries, especially official ones, were often built following Indian and Central Asian designs; Baoguang Monastery is described as having a three-storied stupa on a stone foundation, plus a bathroom and well, features the chapter links to Indian monastic architecture.
  • The tower-type shrine or shrine-stupa, called *jingshe* in Chinese, was likely derived from Indian prototypes such as Śikhara or northern Indian forms and may indicate a Mahāyāna predilection; it merged with the Chinese storied tower and later evolved into the storied pagoda.
  • Ze Rong’s late Eastern Han *futu ci* is cited as a key example: it had a bronze Buddha statue, nine layers of hanging copper plates, a storied building and corridor, accommodated some 3,000 people studying Buddhist texts, attracted more than 5,000 households, and drew about 10,000 people to a Buddha-bathing event.
  • From the second to third centuries CE, the storied pagoda was the main temple structure, with a central pagoda surrounded by corridors or monks’ cells; by the fourth to sixth centuries CE, lecture halls and Buddha halls were added behind the pagoda, and temple layout increasingly adopted traditional Chinese residential design, including a south-facing axial plan.

Methods

  • The chapter is a historical and architectural synthesis, taking Buddhist architecture as a material example of East-West interchange and the compromise between Indian and native Chinese styles.
  • It analyzes literary records such as *Luoyang Qielanji*, *Wei shu*, Faxian’s travel notes, and Xuanzang’s records, alongside archaeological and visual evidence including Jetavana Vihara, Jaulian, the Yungang Grottoes site, a Wuwei green-glazed pottery fort, a third-century pottery building from Xiangfan, a Shifang portrait brick, and Paekche temple plans.
  • The main analysis is comparative and interpretive, tracing changes in monastic layout, stupa/pagoda forms, and terminology such as *futu ci* and *jingshe* rather than using quantitative or statistical methods.

Limitations

  • The paper states no formal limitations section.
  • Evident from the text: the argument often relies on fragmentary literary records, limited surviving archaeological remains, and secondary scholarship, with several claims explicitly framed as conjectural or probable, such as “we conjecture” that Baoguang Monastery adopted Indian styles and that Ze Rong’s *futu ci* probably resembled the Wuwei pottery fort.
  • Evident from the text: the evidence is drawn from selected sites, texts, and objects rather than a systematic corpus, so the chapter’s conclusions about broader architectural transformation are interpretive rather than exhaustive.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190278359.003.0014

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 21 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 2

    Study of Kharosthi inscriptions on a well unearthed in Luoyang City indicates that during the time of Emperors Ling and Xian (ca. 179-190 CE), there were probably monasteries built according to the layout of those of Northwestern India.

    “Study on the Kharosthi inscriptions on the mouth of a well unearthed in Luoyang City makes clear that during the time of Emperors Ling 靈 and Xian 獻 ( ca. 179- 190 CE), there were probably monasteries built according to the layout of those of Northwestern India.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lin 1995: 387-404

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingcitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 6

    In 2008, a pottery building model dated to the third century CE was unearthed from a tomb of Caiyue, Xiangfan City of Hubei Province.

    “Furthermore, in 2008, a pottery building model dated to the third century CE was unearthed from a tomb of Caiyue 菜越 , Xiangfan 襄樊 City of Hubei Province (Figure 13.5).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wen wu 2010, 9: 8

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Interpretationnone given
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 4

    The acceptance and evolution of this distinct monastic layout was related to native Chinese architectures and traditional views in the early days.

    “The acceptance and evolution of this distinct monastic layout, however, was actually related to the native Chinese architectures and the traditional views in the early days.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 2

    Literary records from the Early Medieval period indicate that there were some monasteries (si) imitating the design of India and Central Asia.

    “Literary records from the Early Medieval period also indicate that there were some monasteries ( si 寺 ) imitating the design of India and Central Asia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yang Xuanzhi 2010: 136-137

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Interpretationreasoning
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 2

    The monasteries in which the early foreign Buddhists dwelt in China were probably designed according to the western architectural styles with which they were familiar.

    “Therefore, the monasteries they dwelt in were probably designed according to the western architectural styles that they were familiar with.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 5
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 6

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 5

    The phenomenon of early Buddhist veneration imitating indigenous ways shows one strand of the early process of assimilation of Buddhism in China.

    “According to scholars, such a phenomenon to some extent, actually shows 'one strand of the early process of assimilation of Buddhism in China.'”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rhie 1999, vol. 1: 17-18

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Introduction · p. 2

    To survive and merge into the different cultural environment, advocates of Buddhism made a collective, though not necessarily coordinated, compromise on many issues of contention, including showing respect to the emperor and borrowing concepts from Daoism and Confucianism.

    “To survive and merge into this different cultural environment, the advocates of Buddhism made a collective, though not necessarily coordinated, compromise on many issues of contention, including, for instance, showing respect to emperor and, borrowing certain concepts from Daoism and Confucianism, and so forth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 4

    This typical monastic layout was introduced to China during the first through third centuries CE, and some partial structures were accepted by natives soon afterward.

    “This typical monastic layout was introduced to China during the g7Frst through third centuries CE, and some partial structures were accepted by natives soon afterward.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 6

    The futu ci is in all probability related to the traditional view that spiritual or supernatural beings were living in high and storied buildings.

    “But as scholars point out, it is in all probability, related to the traditional view that the spiritual or supernatural beings were living in high and storied buildings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sun 1984: 42

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 5

    Ze Rong built a great Buddhist temple (futu ci) with a copper statue coated with gold, nine layers of hanging copper plates, a storied building and corridor, and a capacity of some 3000 people.

    “Rong then indulged himself and killed innocent people indiscriminately. He prog7Fted by cutting off the transportation to these three prefectures, and thereupon built a great Buddhist temple ( futu ci ). Rong used copper (bronze) to make a statue that was coated with gold and clothed with bright and colorful garments. [The shrine or tower in the temple] had nine layers of hanging copper plates [on”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chen Shou 1982: 1185

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 6

    The Caiyue pottery building distinguishes itself as a Buddhist temple by using typical Buddhist features, such as the umbrellas (wheels), but the structure below still borrows the traditional form of Chinese storied building.

    “This pottery building distinguishes itself as a Buddhist temple by using some typical Buddhist features, such as the umbrellas (wheels), but the structure below still borrows the traditional form of Chinese storied building.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 7

    In India, Jetavana Vihara (called 'qiyuan jingshe' in Chinese) was originally the dwelling place of Buddha, as recorded in Fa Xian's travel notes.

    “In India, Jetavana Vihara (called ' qiyuan jingshe 祇洹精舍 ' in Chinese) was originally the dwelling place of Buddha, and this was recorded in Fa Xian's 法顯 travel notes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fa Xian 2008: 61-62

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 5

    Thus, futu ci means the temple for Buddha.

    “Thus, futu ci means the temple for Buddha.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Transformation of Foreign Monastic Layout and The Tower Type of Shrine (Shrine-Stupa) · p. 7

    The central storied building in Ze Rong's futu ci should be called 'jingshe' in Chinese, and it eventually evolved into the storied type of pagoda that is well known today.

    “It is also suggested that the central storied building in Ze Rong's futu ci should be called ' jingshe ' 精舍 in Chinese, and it eventually evolved into the storied type of pagoda that is well known today.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sun 1984: 43-45

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

9 of 9

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Buddhism originated from India and was introduced into China in the late Western Han Dynasty (206 BC–25 CE).

    “It is well known that Buddhism originated from India and was introduced into China in the late Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-25 CE).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The blooming of Buddhism in China started with the Jin Dynasty (265–420 CE), as did the rise of monasteries and temples.

    “The blooming of this religion in China actually started with the Jin 晉 Dynasty (265-420 CE), as did the rise of monasteries and temples.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    During the fourth to sixth centuries CE, more foreign monks came to China and more native Chinese became monks and nuns, a lot of sutras were translated, and Buddhism started to prosper.

    “During the fourth to sixth centuries CE, because more foreign monks came to China and more native Chinese became monks and nuns, a lot of sutras were translated and Buddhism started to prosper.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The collision between Buddhism and the old Chinese society was not very fierce; at least there were no outright persecutions and crusades taking place in China.

    “The collision between this new religion and the old Chinese society was not very g7Ferce. At least there were no outright persecutions and crusades taking place in China.”
4 of 4

Citations

Related

Metadata

Authors
Zhou, Y.
Corresponding author
Zhou, Yin
ORCID
Zhou, Yin
Venue
Oxford Scholarship Online
Publisher
Oxford University Press
Published
2017-06-22
DOI
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190278359.003.0014
OpenAlex
W4233005250
Cited by
0
References
0
FWCI
0.00
Type
book
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Historical and Architectural Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
Keywords
Buddhist monastic architecture, Buddhist temple architecture, Chinese Buddhism, cultural adaptation, assimilation, East-West cultural exchange, Central Asian architecture, early medieval China, Buddhist monasteries, religious architecture

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-21, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-21 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review