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Buddhism Challenged, Adopted, and in Disguise
Abstract
The arrival of Buddhism China during the first centuries of the common-era led to major changes in the Chinese religious landscape. Despite its foreign origins, Buddhism soon found Chinese adherents and by the fifth century was widespread and popular throughput China and among all social classes, from the royal courts to the aristocracy and the commoners. Some Chinese, however, viewed this popularity of Buddhism as challenging the fabric of Chinese society and culture. Indeed, many scholars explain the emergence of Daoism as a communal religion in medieval China as a response to Buddhism. The Chinese who rejected Buddhism emphasized that Buddhism was a religion of the foreign, and it was created by Laozi, the ancient Daoist sage, to “convert the barbarians.” This paper aims to examine a variety of interactions between Buddhists and Daoists in medieval China as they argued and debated their place in Chinese society.
Overview
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TL;DR
This chapter examines three Daoist responses to Buddhism in medieval China (5th–6th centuries): the polemical *huahu* ("conversion of the barbarians") discourse, the Lingbao scriptures' absorption of Buddhist material, and hybrid Buddho-Daoist stelae of the Northern Dynasties. Raz argues that even anti-Buddhist Daoist texts were deeply indebted to Buddhist narratives and terminology, and that at the local level the two religions were practiced simultaneously as complementary repertoires.
Key findings
- The *huahu* discourse held that Laozi went west and became (or created) the Buddha, making Buddhism a foreign teaching unfit for China; the *Huahu jing* attributed to Wang Fu circulated in the 4th century, was expanded from 1 to 10 *juan* by the early Tang, and was finally destroyed in the 13th century, surviving only in Dunhuang fragments and citations.
- Even polemical Daoist texts borrowed Buddhist sources: a passage in the *Xuanmiao neipian* (cited in Gu Huan's 467 CE *Yixia lun*) is closely based on Zhi Qian's *Foshuo taizi ruiying benqi jing* (T. 185), recast to subordinate the Buddha to Laozi; the *Santian neijie jing* (after 420 CE) correlates Laozi/left side/yang/life with Daoism and Śākyamuni/right side/yin/death with Buddhism, and labels Daoists "Great Vehicle" and Buddhists "Small Vehicle."
- The Lingbao *Five Ascendant Talismans* grafted the Buddhist ten directions onto the older eight-direction scheme; its Buddha and Bodhisattva names come verbatim from Zhi Qian's *Foshuo pusa benyejing* (T. 281), and its closing line quotes the *Vimalakīrti sutra* (T. 474). The Dunhuang manuscript P. 2440 is earlier and more Buddhist than the Daozang version DZ 671, where *fo* (Buddha) becomes *jiao/zhenren*, *cha* (kṣetra) becomes *guan*, and *sheli* (śarīra) becomes *shenguang*.
- Northern Dynasties stelae (480s–580s CE) show hybrid practice: on the Fan Nuzi stela (532 CE) the donor calls himself *daomin* on the front, *fodizi* on the left, and *dudu* on the back; the Shi Clan Stele (523 CE) has Daoist images on front/right and Buddhist on back/left, lists 198 names with a core community of 71 members (all Shi except two Liu), and its vow seeks the Dragon Flower assembly of Maitreya.
Methods
- Textual and philological analysis of medieval Daoist and Buddhist scriptures, comparing the Dunhuang manuscript P. 2440, the received Daozang version DZ 671, and citations in the *Wushang biyao* (WSBY, commissioned by Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou, 543–578 CE) to reconstruct the earlier, more Buddhist form of the Lingbao text.
- Epigraphic analysis of Northern Dynasties stelae from the Jing and Wei river valleys in Shaanxi, erected by clans (*jia*) or religious associations (*yi*), reading donor names, titles, and dedicatory vows.
- The chapter is a synthetic interpretive essay organized around three case types (rejection, disguised adoption, local hybridity), drawing on prior scholarship (Zürcher, Bokenkamp, Lü Pengzhi, Zhang Zexun, and others).
Limitations
- The paper states that the exact dating of textual changes is difficult ("The changes in the text probably date to the early Tang, but exact dating is difficult"), that it is often difficult to state which social entity a particular Daoist text represents, and that the precise relationship between subgroupings on the stelae "remains unclear."
- The author explicitly speculates about practice: it is "not quite clear what the practitioner was supposed to visualize" with *sheli*, and the interpretation of *sarira* becoming an in-life attainment is offered as speculation.
- Evident from the text: the analysis rests on a small number of illustrative cases (one Lingbao scripture, one stele examined in detail) rather than a systematic corpus, and the comparative closing remarks about Rome are posed as questions rather than demonstrated findings.
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Claims the paper makes
46 No basis given · 45 Own interpretation · 23 Sources not found · 23 Own result · 4 Not checked yet
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In the paper
“One of the most obvious Buddhist in uences in this text is the incorporation of the Buddhist cosmology of the ten directions onto an ancient ritual scheme that was based on the traditional Chinese cosmology of eight directions.”
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In the paper
“These names and epithets in Five Ascendant Talismans are taken verbatim from Zhi Qian's Foshuo pusa benyejing .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites T. 281
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In the paper
“The earlier part of the ritual instructions involves only eight talismans of the Eight Archivists (bashi 八史 ), personig7Fcations of the ancient Chinese cosmology of the eight trigrams.”
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In the paper
“This cosmological reformulation undergirds one of the core ritual procedures presented in the Five Ascendant Talismans that involves the laying out of talismans in the ten directions of space.”
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In the paper
“In another important change, the term sheli 舍 利 , which translates sarira , relics, the reg7Fned remains of a Buddha who had been cremated, has been replaced in the Daozang version by the Daoist term shenguang 神光 , which denotes glowing emanations from the body produced during meditation.”
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In the paper
“Close examination of these citations shows that the WSBY is much closer to the Dunhuang Manuscript P. 2440 than to the canonic version DZ 671.”
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In the paper
“We should recall that this section in DZ 671, the canonic version of the text, is quite different because it had undergone severe editing that replaced the Buddhist terminology with Daoist terms.”
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In the paper
“The term cha 剎 in P. 2440, the Chinese translation for ksetra , 'g7Feld, ' the realm of a particular Buddha, was replaced in DZ 671 by 'Hall' ( guan 館 Hall).”
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In the paper
“Thus, in the following passage, Buddha ( fo 佛 ) was consistently changed to 'teaching' ( jiao 教 ), 'Powers' ( zhong 眾 ), or 'Perfected Person' ( zhenren 真人 ).”
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In the paper
“Among the most intriguing hints of such intermingling are several stelae erected in the central region of China, between the Jing and Wei river valleys in Shaanxi, during the late Northern Dynasties (late g7Ffth to the late sixth century CE ).”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“An examination of the two versions of Wucheng fu shows that for about two centuries after its composition, this text would have seemed very much a Buddhist sutra.”
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In the paper
“In the list of directional deities, the word Buddha and Bodhisattva, which preceded the names of the deities in P. 2440, were replaced by the words 'Perfected Person' in the redacted version of DZ 671.”
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In the paper
“Each of the directional deities is given a celestial residence, a Buddha name, and a bodhisattva name.”
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In the paper
“To include the two Buddhist directions of zenith and nadir, the Daoist author simply added terms for the celestial abode (' oriate canopy' huagai 華蓋 ) and a watery realm ( shuifu 水府 ).”
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In the paper
“The amalgam of Buddhist and Daoist religious practices and discourses shown by the images and nomenclature on this stele, and dozens of others, is also apparent in the dedicatory inscription below the image on the right face of the stele.”
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In the paper
“The two Buddhists surnamed Liu are the only non-Shi names on the stele.”
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In the paper
“On other stelae we also g7Fnd donors listed as 'Buddhists' (fodizi 佛弟子 ).”
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In the paper
“Titles that relate to the community include 'community-leader' ( yizheng 邑政 ), 'community master' ( yishi 邑師 ), and 'recordkeeper' ( dianlu 典錄 ).”
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In the paper
“Indeed, the g7Fnal lines of this passage express the community's wishes to witness the arrival of the future Maitreya Buddha, who will sit below the Dragon- ower tree and preach in front of the Dragon- ower assembly.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [83]
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In the paper
“Another main donor is listed on the left face: Shi Hu 師護 .”
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In the paper
“The disputed register-disciple Shi is named principle donor ( xiangzhu 像主 ) on the obverse face of the stele, below the principle Buddhist image.”
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In the paper
“Several titles on the stele are based on Buddhist monastic and institutional titles: 'verger' ( dianzuo 典坐 ), 'rector' ( weina 唯那 ), 'chief donor' tanyuezhu 檀越主 , a transcription for the Sanskrit da ̄ napati , and perhaps 'censers' ( xianghuo 香火 ).”
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In the paper
“The various stelae show that different families and local groups selected and placed different emphases on the various elements of the Buddhist and Daoist repertoire they shared.”
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In the paper
“Except for two people surnamed Liu 劉 , all the donors are of the Shi 師 family.”
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In the paper
“It is important to note that even texts that explicitly rejected Buddhism, such as the Huahu materials we examine following, were heavily indebted to Buddhism.”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Among the most important of these is an early Celestial Master text, dating to 255 CE , the Commands and Admonitions of the Families of the Great Dao [ Dadao jialing jie ].”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Although this claim may overstate the case, there is little doubt that the development and formation of Daoism, in organizational terms, textual forms, theological and ritual notions, and practices, are heavily indebted to Buddhism.”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“While the early references to the Daoist origins of Buddhism seem benign, and were perhaps even supported by Buddhists who wished to have an ancient pedigree respected in China, by the fourth century, this narrative turned to a critique of Buddhism as religion taught by Laozi for the beneg7Ft of the obstinate and benighted barbarians and ung7Ft for the Chinese realm.”
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In the paper
“The earliest reference to this notion is in a memorial presented by the ofg7Fcial Xiang Kai 襄楷 to Han Emperor Huan in 166 CE in which he criticized the emperor's joint worship of Huang-Lao and Buddha.”
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In the paper
“The abrupt and inconclusive ending of this narrative allowed for the elaboration of the story to account for the origins of Buddhism.”
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In the paper
“Signig7Fcantly, this Daoist passage is closely based on one of the earliest biographies of the Buddha composed in China, the Foshuo taizi ruiying benqi jing 佛說太子瑞應本起經 [Sutra of the Original Endeavour of the Prince in Accordance with All good Omens] by Zhi Qian 支謙 ( . 222- 252).”
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In the paper
“Among the more intriguing impacts that Buddhism had by its very presence was the development of the notion of 'religion' as an autonomous institution.”
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In the paper
“This adoption, however, should not be seen as acceptance of Buddhism but rather as an attempt to suborn and manipulate certain ideas within a Daoist cosmology, while rejecting Buddhism itself.”
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In the paper
“It was in the context of religious contestation and rivalry during the medieval era that traditionally amorphous Chinese religious practices and traditions were constructed by contemporaries as social institutions with specig7Fc names.”
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In the paper
“The integration of Buddhism in China during the g7Frst centuries of the Common Era led to fundamental and permanent changes in the Chinese religious landscape.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1]
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In the paper
“Several later texts refer to Laozi traveling to the west and becoming the Buddha.”
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In the paper
“Finally, I examine the intriguing stelae of the Northern Dynasties (dating from 480s-580s CE ) that present a particular local hybrid of Buddho-Daoism.”
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In the paper
“The story that Buddha was actually Laozi who entered the western regions and converted the people of the barbarian lands was based on an obvious lacuna in Laozi's biography as presented in the Annals of the Historian [ Shiji 史記 ] by Sima Qian, completed in 104 BCE , which stated that Laozi left China during the waning years of the Zhou.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [14]
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In the paper
“Importantly, even at the early cosmogonic stage, we g7Fnd a manipulation of Buddha's birth narrative:”
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In the paper
“Another version of the Wuchengfu is preserved as a Dunhuang manuscript entitled Lingbao zhenyi wuchengjing 靈寶真一五稱經 ( Scripture of the Five Ascendants of the Perfect One of Lingbao ).”
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This shift g7Fts into a set of cosmological dichotomies in which Laozi and Daoism are correlated with yang and life, while Buddha is correlated with yin and death.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most elaborate Daoist response to Buddhism was the corpus of Numinous Treasure [Lingbao 靈寶 ] scriptures composed around 400 CE .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Daozang version thus unig7Fes each of these directional deities into a single undivided personig7Fed aspect of Lingbao .”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The debates inspired by the Huahu jing , the efforts at replacing Buddhism expressed by the Lingbao scriptures, and the various polemical and apologetic writings produced by medieval Daoists and Buddhists give the impression of deeply demarcated religions. This is, however, far from the social reality of lived religion in medieval China.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The line reappears in Kumarajiva's 鳩摩 羅什 translation (T. 475.14.550b4), which was compiled in 406 CE .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, while trying to subordinate the Buddhist cosmology within a Daoist framework, Lingbao texts such as the Five Ascendant Talismans may have actually led to even further penetration of Buddhism into Chinese religious practice.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As Zhi Qian was based in the Jiang'nan region, it is likely that his text was the source.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The emphasis on the birth through the left side of the Mystic and Wondrous Mystic Maiden and from Mother Li contrasts with the birth from the right side of Queen Ma ya .”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Ironically, the Buddhist discourse of Great and Small vehicle is here turned against the Buddhists themselves, as their contemplative practice is reduced by the Daoist author to simple counting of breaths:”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among the most explicit criticisms of Buddhism is a critique of meditation practice that is contrasted with Daoist visualization techniques.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For these visualizations, the Lingbao authors and adepts would have required Buddhist texts and images.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At each direction, the adept would be invoking a Buddha and a Bodhisattva, rather than a single perfected with different names ( 名 ) and styles ( 字 ).”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We can interpret the theological implications here as the notion of sarira transformed from a postmortem sacrality to a personal attainment in life.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While these debates, scriptures, and polemical writings are certainly important for understanding the developing identities of the religious communities, these texts are by no means representative of how these religions intermingled in the practices of local communities.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, the ritual procedure presented in the original text of the Five Ascendant Talismans was wholly dependent on the Buddhist imaginaire of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in the ten directions, on sarira , and Buddha g7Felds.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Clearly, the Daoist author recast the Buddhist text to construct a narrative that subordinates the Buddha to Laozi.”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would thereby negate the need for actual Buddhists in China.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“so the vision required here would probably be the palatial establishments envisioned by Yang Xi and described in the Shangqing texts.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: At the time of composition of the Lingbao scriptures, ca. 400 CE, Daoists had not yet established monasteries.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Rather, the composition of the Lingbao scriptures was a creative and complex process by their authors who, recognizing the success of Buddhist ideas in China, sought to construct an integrated religious system that would incorporate certain Buddhist elements by adapting and manipulating them within a Daoist framework.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [35]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [36]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Substantial citations of the Five Ascendant Talismans appear in the Daoist compendium Secret Essentials Without Peer ( Wushang biyao 無上秘要 DZ 1138; hereafter, WSBY), which was commissioned by emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou (543-578 CE).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Little wonder, then, that much of the Huahu discourse, discussed previously, seems to be aimed at Daoists who incorporate Buddhist practice and ideas as much as Buddhism itself.”
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus the attainment imagined here has transformed from a post-mortem sacrality of sarira to an achievement of a reg7Fned essence of the body while still alive.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Shi Clan Stele is but one example of the stelae erected by this local Daoist community that reveal a complex hybrid of Buddhist and Daoist practices.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the meanings of these titles and their precise function in the community remains unclear, their variety and commonality across dozens of stelae show active and lively complex local religious communities.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As we saw, even the authors of huahu discourse texts, who fully rejected Buddhism, used Buddhist narratives, terminology, and cosmology in their anti-Buddhist polemics.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The author, or authors, of the Lingbao texts evidently used Buddhist texts to subordinate these teachings to the overarching Daoist frameworkrecognizing the supremacy of the Dao even while incorporating the Buddhas of the Ten Directions.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most importantly, these stelae show that at the local level, far from the textual productions of the elite Buddhist monks and Daoist priests and the debates at courts, Buddhism and Daoism were viewed as vast repertoires of religious ideas, practices, and behaviors from which individual adherents or communities selected efg7Fcacious elements to form particular and often idiosyncratic syntheses.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The title of Register-Disciple Shi marks him as a Daoist initiate.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [76]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
- Probably not a substantial claim. 42
- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The term used in the Daozang version of the text, shenguag 神光 , refers to a notion of the physical body transformed into an ethereal, glowing, subtle body.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The textual differences between the Dunhuang text, the received canonical version, and the citations in WSBY show that P.2440 is earlier than DZ 671 and closer to the original text.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The line cited in the Five Ascendant Talismans is found in Zhi Qian's text (T. 474.14.530c3) but not in Dharmaraksa's translation.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the Dunhuang version, closer to the original, this imagination is activated by the term sheli 舍 利 , which in Buddhist context translates sarira , relics, the reg7Fned remains of a Buddha who had been cremated.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The instructions also require the adept to visualize their bodies transforming and radiating colors.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This emanation is perceived as the reg7Fned essence of the body while still alive.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The Daoist author of Wucheng fu used two sutras translated by Zhi Qian 支謙 ( . 220- 252): (1) A substantial section of the ritual instructions examined in the following is based on Foshuo pusa benyejing 佛說菩薩本業經 [ Original Endeavors of the Bodhisattva ] T. 281; (2) the g7Fnal line of the text is: 'One who is able to display the meaning of the subtlety is like a lotus living within g7Fre.' This line”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Textual similarities between a Daoist text and a Buddhist sutra indicate that the Daoist author used that Buddhist source.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we should emphasize that the original text of the Five Ascendant Talismans simply did not refer to shenguang .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the line immediately below his name, we g7Fnd three Buddhists ( fo dizi 佛弟子 ), two surnamed Liu and one whose surname is effaced but probably surnamed Shi.”
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These few lines discuss the ineffable qualities of the Dao, clearly alluding to stanza 14 of the Daode jing .”
boostedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All the stelae include such inscriptions that typically express a communal vow for the beneg7Ft of the ancestors, family, and state, and often some theological elaboration of the motivation for erecting the stele.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The dedicatory inscription on Shi Clan Stele incorporates Daoist and Buddhist notions and terms and intriguingly seeks the arrival of two savior g7Fgures:”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among the best examples of such hybridity is the Shi Clan Stele 師氏碑 stele (dated to 523 CE ), which has Daoist images on the front and right sides, and Buddhist images on the back and left sides.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For instance, on the Fan Nuzi stela 樊奴子碑 , dating to 532 CE , Fan Nuzi refers to himself as Daoist ( daomin 道民 ) on the front face of the stele, as Buddhist ( fodizi 佛弟子 ) on the left face of the stele, as well as local military ofg7Fcial ( dudu 都督 ) on the back face of the stele.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the stelae are inscribed with Daoist and Buddhist images and with texts that indicate the dates and locations, dozens of names and titles of the donors, and vows ( yuan 願 ) that express the community's wishes and hopes for the beneg7Ft of the family, its ancestors to seven generations, its descendants, and the empire.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While there are 198 names listed on the stele, the dedicatory inscription tells us that the core community numbers 71 members.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in the g7Fnal lines of the dedicatory vow, the language and aspirations resume a more Buddhist tone:”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the principal Daoist image, on the yang face of the stele, we g7Fnd the names of the two main donors: Shi Huijun 師回雋 and Shi Zhenxing 師真興 .”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, I look at the development of the 'conversion of the barbarians' discourse that took on a new urgency during the g7Ffth century.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The impact of this text, and the discourse it spawned, was wide; and we g7Fnd extensive references to this discourse in Daoist texts from the g7Ffth century onward.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These texts are well known for their wholesale adoption of Buddhist ideology, terminology, and practice.”
boostedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This religion is therefore inappropriate for China.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The turning point in this discourse is attributed in Buddhist sources to a Daoist named Wang Fu 王浮 , who after having been repeatedly defeated in court debates by the Buddhist monk Bo Yuan 帛遠 , composed the Scripture of the Conversion of the Barbarians [ Huahu jing 化胡經 ].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [18]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This discourse is often termed Huahu , 'Conversion of the Barbarian,' and it was quite pervasive in medieval Daoist texts and other writings.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, I examine the Lingbao 靈寶 (Numinous Treasure) scriptures, a Daoist scriptural and ritual tradition that appeared in the g7Ffth century.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Xiang Kai refers to those 'who say that Laozi entered the land of the 'western barbarians' ( yidi 夷狄 ) and became Buddha.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [10]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [11]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [12]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the early Tang dynasty (618-907 CE ), the original single juan of the text was expanded to 10 juan , incorporating various new mythological narratives and re ecting a more complex religious background.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The tone of the text was so polemical that the Scripture of the Conversion of the Barbarians was soon criticized and challenged by Buddhists, both in court debates and in a variety of writings from the g7Ffth century.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The more developed huahu narratives include two basic variants: (1) Laozi becomes the Buddha, either by instructing the foreign people after his departure from China or by being reborn as the historical Buddha; (2) Laozi dispatches Yin Xi to descend into the womb of Queen Maya and to be born as the Buddha.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although the attribution, and Wang Fu himself, may be g7Fctions invented by Buddhist polemicists, there is little doubt that a text entitled Huahu jing circulated in the fourth century.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [18]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The destruction was so complete that until the discovery of few fragmentary manuscripts at Dunhuang in the twentieth century, the only remnants of the Scripture of the Conversion of the Barbarians were citations preserved in a few Daoist compilations and in Buddhist polemical writings countering the Daoist claims.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another critique of Buddhism was that it was a foreign teaching and unsuitable for China.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some criticism focused on the renunciant life advocated by Buddhists, which threatened the family structure that was not only the social and political basis of the Chinese state but the underlying premise of the Ruist (Confucian) vision of the cosmos itself.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, we need to remember that Buddhist in uences vary substantially among different Daoist texts, which we should see as representing different Daoist communities of practice.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Despite its foreign origins, Buddhism soon found Chinese adherents, and by the g7Ffth century was widespread and popular throughout China and among all social classes, from the royal courts to the aristocracy and the commoners.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Buddhists responded to the huahu texts with their own apologetic texts, in court debates, and in texts that presented opposite claims, even asserting that Confucius was a student of Buddha.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The Chinese who rejected Buddhism emphasized that Buddhism was a religion of the foreign people ( hu 胡 ), and it was created by Laozi, the ancient Daoist sage, to 'convert the barbarians' ( huahu 化胡 ).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The texts associated with this notion of huahu were popular, and these ideas are found in many Daoist scriptures composed during this period.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chinese authors began to challenge and criticize Buddhism almost as soon as Buddhists g7Frst arrived in China.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“At each juncture, the ofg7Fciants were to hold a zhai to revere the celestial writs ( 奉齋朝天文 ).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among the clearest articulations of the cosmological distinctions that prove the unsuitability of Buddhism to China is the reformist Celestial Master text Inner Explanations of the Three Heavens , composed soon after 420 CE .”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In later versions of the Daoist narrative, the gestation period of the mother extends to 72 and 81 years, and the side from which the baby emerges shifts to the left.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The g7Frst version entitled Taishang wuji dadao ziran zhenyi wuchengfu shangjing 太上無極大道自然真一五稱符上經 , DZ 671, is included in the Daoist canon ( Daozang 道 藏 ).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Lingbao formulation recast the Buddhist repentance rite in bureaucratic terms and added four more days (the 1st, 18th, 24th, and 28th) to a total of ten.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Careful reading of the Lingbao scriptures, as I discuss elsewhere, reveal developments in the use of the term zhai from its older, generic sense of 'fast, abstinence, rite' to the more specialized meaning of 'Formalized Ritual Retreat.'”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that the Dunhuang manuscripts are far closer to the original texts than the Daozang versions.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas the huahu discourse expressed a complete rejection of Buddhism, while incorporating much Buddhist terminology and rhetoric, other Daoist discourses took a different path.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cosmological dichotomy between Daoism and Buddhism advanced in great detail in the Inner Explanations of the Three Heavens is clearly meant to prove the absolute unsuitability of Buddhism for the Chinese.”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It appears, therefore, that the author of this Lingbao text was very familiar with Zhi Qian's translations and preferred them when possible.”
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Stephen Bokenkamp has shown that the complex textual and ideological manipulations of Buddhist materials in the Lingbao Scriptures were not simply mimicry or plagiarism.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [35]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [36]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the Lingbao scriptures were heavily redacted during the early Tang to remove the obvious Buddhist terminology, we may speculate that the original Lingbao scriptures appeared far more Buddhist than they do at present.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evidently, in this section, the Daoist author of the ritual grafted Buddhist cosmology onto the ancient ritual form, albeit not too successfully.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As we see at the end of the text, the real contrast is between Daoism and Buddhism, personig7Fed by Laozi and Ś akya muni.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The g7Frst chapter of this text is a detailed history of Daoism, beginning with the emanation of the cosmos from primordial unity. The narrative proceeds to describe the appearance of humanity the text incorporating a complex huahu narrative.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the second chapter, the text turns to criticism of specig7Fc practices. Again borrowing the language of Buddhism, the text labels its own teachings as the Great Vehicle ( dasheng 大乘 = Mahayana) and those of its rivals as the Small Vehicle ( xiaosheng 小乘 = Hinayana ).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The original form of the Lingbao scriptures were far more Buddhist both in terminology and perhaps also in the implications of this terminology.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to the Five Tablets in Red Script 赤書五篇 , one of the core texts of the Lingbao scriptures, in each of these ten days, the respective directional deities inspect the merits and faults of mortals and ghosts under their jurisdiction.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“As I discuss elsewhere, the anti-Buddhist rhetoric in this text may also hint at intra-Daoist debates.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [34]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We should note here that although the text refers to three Ways, there are in fact only two, as the Great Way of Inaction and the Great Way of Pure Contract are both forms of Daoism.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In a similar vein, Lü Pengzhi has explored the dependence of the Lingbao ritual scheme, and particularly the Ten Days of Retreat ( zhai 齋 ) on the Buddhist rite of uposatha .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [37]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [38]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [39]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“After this initial birth, Laozi proceeds to create humanity and then proceeds to 'issue forth three Ways to teach the people of heaven.' These three Ways were correlated with the cosmological qualities of the people at their locales. Thus, 'in the Central Kingdom where the yang vapor is pure and bright,' Laozi initiated the Great Way of Inaction ( Wuwei dadao 無為大道 ). Outside this realm, in the 81”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The changes in the text probably date to the early Tang, but exact dating is difg7Fcult.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This scriptural corpus, which to a large extent continues to inform the current Daoist ritual system, is well known for its incorporation of Buddhist cosmology, terminology, concepts, and practices.”
boostedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While this passage is no more than a Daoist caricature of Buddhist meditation practices, it stresses the distinction Daoists made between Buddhist practices and their own practice of visualization ( cun 存 ) of the 'perfected spirits' 真神 , the gods within the body.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cosmological argument in the g7Frst chapter of the Inner Explanations of the Three Heavens proves the primacy of Daoism, and specig7Fcally of Celestial Master Daoism.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Buddhist rite was performed on six days of each month (the 8th, 14th, 15th, 23rd, 29th, and 30th) and consisted of a recitation of the monastic code ( pratimoksa ) by the monks and nuns followed by individual confessions of sin.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here, I focus on the Five Ascendant Talismans ( Wuchengfu 五稱符 ), one of the original Lingbao scriptures, which we are fortunate to have in two versions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The current version of Wuchengfu in the Daozang consists of two juan , whereas the Dunhuang version is of one juan only ; thus, the division of the current text is also a later adjustment.”
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Buddho-Daoist stele of the Northern Dynasties show that in some communities, Buddhism and Daoism were accepted simultaneously, and adherents could approach the Dao and Buddha, or Maitreya, at the same time.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While reference to 'inner and outer' resonates with the huahu discourse discussed previously, the overall tenor of the passage is clearly based on ancient Daoist ideas:”
boostedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to these lines, Buddha and Dao are equivalent, and although apparently distinct, are unig7Fed at their source.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the best known of such adaptations of Buddhist ideas are in the Lingbao scriptures, this inscription shows that local Daoist communities such as this one were clearly using Buddhist p. 127 p. 128 and Daoist terminology within the same religious vocabulary.”
boostedstates an associationSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The terminology and notions of karma introduced by Buddhists to China had been adopted by various Daoist lineages by the fifth century CE.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On a more comparative note, there does not seem to be cultural or religious developments in Europe that correspond to the emergence of Daoism with its variegated responses to Buddhism.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Textual similarities between a Daoist text and a Buddhist sutra indicate that the Daoist author used that Buddhist source.
“The Daoist author of Wucheng fu used two sutras translated by Zhi Qian 支謙 ( . 220- 252): (1) A substantial section of the ritual instructions examined in the following is based on Foshuo pusa benyejing 佛說菩薩本業經 [ Original Endeavors of the Bodhisattva ] T. 281; (2) the g7Fnal line of the text is: 'One who is able to display the meaning of the subtlety is like a lotus living within g7Fre.'”
The paper relies on this without support.
At the time of composition of the Lingbao scriptures, ca. 400 CE, Daoists had not yet established monasteries.
“We should also recall that at the time of composition of the Lingbao scriptures, ca. 400 CE , Daoists had not yet established monasteries”
The paper relies on this without support.
The terminology and notions of karma introduced by Buddhists to China had been adopted by various Daoist lineages by the fifth century CE.
“The terminology and notions of karma introduced by Buddhists to China, was by the g7Ffth century CE adopted by various Daoist lineages.”
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Assandri, F. (2022) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel13040347 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Raz, G.
- Corresponding author
- Raz, Gil
- Venue
- Oxford Scholarship Online
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press
- Published
- 2017-06-22
- OpenAlex
- W4247572929
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Study and Philosophy of Religion
- Keywords
- Buddhism, Daoism, early Chinese Buddhism, Laozi, Chinese religious history, medieval China, religious conversion, foreign religions
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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