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Cited by 99Paleontology and Evolutionary BiologyAvian ecology and behaviorEvolution and Paleontology Studies

Morphometrics of flightlessness in the Alcidae

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Livezey, Bradley C.·1988·The Auk
DOI 10.1093/auk/105.4.681
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Abstract

Data collected from skin specimens of the 23 Recent species of Alcidae, skeletal material for Recent and fossil alcids, and published data on body mass and wing area were used to describe the morphometric characteristics of flightlessness in the Great Auk (Pinguinus impennis) and the fossil mancalline auks. A regression equation confirmed a body-mass estimate (5 kg) for P. impennis (Bédard 1969). The size and relatively small wings produced wing-loading of roughly 22 g· cm-2, comparable to those of medium-sized penguins. Multivariate analysis of external measurements underscored the uniquely large size, relatively short wings, and moderately deep bill of Pinguinus compared to other Recent alcids. Analysis of skeletal measurements revealed that the genera of flightless Alcidae (Pinguinus, Mancalla, Praemancalla, and Alcodes) were characterized by relatively short distal wing elements and dorsoventral flattening of all major wing elements, in combination with relatively large core and pelvic dimensions. These differences were most pronounced in Mancalla, moderately developed in Praemancalla, and smallest in Pinguinus. Estimated body mass (1-4 kg) for selected fossil mancallines exceeded the largest flighted alcids (Uria) but was less than for Pinguinus. Pinguinus was a comparatively large piscivore sharing many morphological features with the Razorbill (Alca torda) and murres (Uria spp.). Its flightlessness evidently was a consequence of extreme specialization for pursuit diving, convergent with that of the Spheniscidae. Loss of flight imposed significant requirements on breeding sites and foraging habitats of the Great Auk and presumably the mancallines, and rendered Pinguinus exceptionally vulnerable to human exploitation.

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  • Volant extant birds always have wing loading values below 2.5 g cm-2.

    “Meunier and others demonstrated that volant extant birds always have wing loading values below 2.5 gcm 2 [44, 71, 123-126]”

    From Potential for Powered Flight Neared by Most Close Avialan Relatives, but Few Crossed Its Thresholds (2020) · cites this paper as [126]

    The External Characters section reports wing loadings below 2.5 g cm−2 for all 10 flighted alcid species it examines. It calls 2.5 g cm−2 a hypothesized threshold of flightlessness, but does not demonstrate that every volant extant bird falls below it. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Research works printed but not linked: 39

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Authors
Livezey, B. C.
Affiliations
University of Kansas (US)
Corresponding author
Livezey, Bradley C.
Venue
The Auk
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
1988-10-01
Volume
105
Issue
4
Pages
681-698
ISSN
  • 0004-8038 (ISSN-L)
  • 1938-4254
DOI
10.1093/auk/105.4.681
OpenAlex
W2977786018
Cited by
99
References
48
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 3
FWCI
2.84
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • The Auk (publishedVersion)
  • Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) (submittedVersion)
Funders
National Science Foundation (8516623)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Evolutionary Biology
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Avian ecology and behavior
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Evolution and Paleontology Studies
Keywords
flightlessness, Alcidae, Great Auk, Pinguinus impennis, body mass estimation, wing loading, skeletal morphology, convergent evolution, penguins, piscivory, human exploitation

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