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Cited by 10vaccines and immunoinformatics approachesMachine Learning in BioinformaticsImmunotherapy and Immune Responses

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TransHLA: a Hybrid Transformer model for HLA-presented epitope detection

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Lu, Tianchi, Wang, Xueying, Nie, Wan, Huo, Miaozhe, Li, Shuaicheng·2025·GigaScience
DOI 10.1093/gigascience/giaf008PMC PMC11878767

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Abstract

Background: Precise prediction of epitope presentation on human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules is crucial for advancing vaccine development and immunotherapy. Conventional HLA–peptide binding affinity prediction tools often focus on specific alleles and lack a universal approach for comprehensive HLA site analysis. This limitation hinders efficient filtering of invalid peptide segments. Results: We introduce TransHLA, a pioneering tool designed for epitope prediction across all HLA alleles, integrating Transformer and Residue CNN architectures. TransHLA utilizes the ESM2 large language model for sequence and structure embeddings, achieving high predictive accuracy. For HLA class I, it reaches an accuracy of 84.72% and an area under the curve (AUC) of 91.95% on IEDB test data. For HLA class II, it achieves 79.94% accuracy and an AUC of 88.14%. Our case studies using datasets like CEDAR and VDJdb demonstrate that TransHLA surpasses existing models in specificity and sensitivity for identifying immunogenic epitopes and neoepitopes. Conclusions: TransHLA significantly enhances vaccine design and immunotherapy by efficiently identifying broadly reactive peptides. Our resources, including data and code, are publicly accessible at https://github.com/SkywalkerLuke/TransHLA

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Figure 1: Overview of data acquisition and predictive modeling using TransHLA. (A) Data acquisition: The dataset, derived from the IEDB, features a variety of peptide sequences that bind to HLA class I or II molecules. For negative sample generation, nonoverlapping random peptide fragments were sourced by matching positive peptides to their originating proteins through sequence alignment. Then, the nonoverlapping random peptide fragments were processed with CD-HIT to achieve a reduced redundancy, resulting in the final set of negative samples. (B) With ESM2’s advanced modeling capabilities, we generated high-dimensional sequence embeddings for the peptides associated with both HLA classes. Concurrently, structural insights were obtained through ESM2’s contact map predictions, yielding structure embeddings. These 2 distinct yet complementary sets of embeddings were crafted to capture the intricate nature of peptide–HLA interaction, describes the process from data input to epitope presentation prediction. (C) The architecture of the different modules, including the CNN Module 1, CNN Module 2, and the Transformer module.
Figure 1: Overview of data acquisition and predictive modeling using TransHLA. (A) Data acquisition: The dataset, derived from the IEDB, features a variety of peptide sequences that bind to HLA class I or II molecules. For negative sample generation, nonoverlapping random peptide fragments were sourced by matching positive peptides to their originating proteins through sequence alignment. Then, the nonoverlapping random peptide fragments were processed with CD-HIT to achieve a reduced redundancy, resulting in the final set of negative samples. (B) With ESM2’s advanced modeling capabilities, we generated high-dimensional sequence embeddings for the peptides associated with both HLA classes. Concurrently, structural insights were obtained through ESM2’s contact map predictions, yielding structure embeddings. These 2 distinct yet complementary sets of embeddings were crafted to capture the intricate nature of peptide–HLA interaction, describes the process from data input to epitope presentation prediction. (C) The architecture of the different modules, including the CNN Module 1, CNN Module 2, and the Transformer module.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2: This figure illustrates the experimental distribution of major HLA-I alleles in the IEDB. We plotted the alleles by type, where panel A shows the distribution for all data, B for the training dataset, C for the test dataset, and D for the validation dataset. Left represents HLA-A alleles, middle represents HLA-B alleles, and right represents HLA-C alleles.
Figure 2: This figure illustrates the experimental distribution of major HLA-I alleles in the IEDB. We plotted the alleles by type, where panel A shows the distribution for all data, B for the training dataset, C for the test dataset, and D for the validation dataset. Left represents HLA-A alleles, middle represents HLA-B alleles, and right represents HLA-C alleles.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3: This figure evaluates TransHLA’s epitope prediction capabilities, benchmarked against other models using 2 key statistical metrics: AUROC and AUPRC. Panels (A) and (C) examine HLA-I class performance, with (A) showing AUROC and (C) presenting AUPRC. The graphs demonstrate TransHLA’s proficiency in distinguishing between epitope and nonepitope peptides for HLA-I, where AUROC indicates its discriminative power and AUPRC reflects the precision–recall trade-off. Panels (B) and (D) extend the analysis to HLA-II, with (B) displaying AUROC and (D) illustrating AUPRC. The performance depicted emphasizes TransHLA’s effectiveness in identifying HLA-II epitopes, highlighting its ability to differentiate between classes under imbalanced distributions. Together, the panels demonstrate TransHLA’s advantage over conventional models in epitope prediction for both HLA classes.
Figure 3: This figure evaluates TransHLA’s epitope prediction capabilities, benchmarked against other models using 2 key statistical metrics: AUROC and AUPRC. Panels (A) and (C) examine HLA-I class performance, with (A) showing AUROC and (C) presenting AUPRC. The graphs demonstrate TransHLA’s proficiency in distinguishing between epitope and nonepitope peptides for HLA-I, where AUROC indicates its discriminative power and AUPRC reflects the precision–recall trade-off. Panels (B) and (D) extend the analysis to HLA-II, with (B) displaying AUROC and (D) illustrating AUPRC. The performance depicted emphasizes TransHLA’s effectiveness in identifying HLA-II epitopes, highlighting its ability to differentiate between classes under imbalanced distributions. Together, the panels demonstrate TransHLA’s advantage over conventional models in epitope prediction for both HLA classes.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4: This figure displays the PCA-based 2-dimensional feature space distribution of HLA-I and HLA-II epitope presentation test sets. The space is split into 2 regions: region I for HLA-I epitopes and region II for HLA-II epitopes. Each region shows positive samples as blue dots and negative samples as red dots, with representations from various model embeddings (A–H), including random pattern, TextCNN, TextRCNN, RNN-ATTs, DPCNN, random initial, ESM2 pretrained sequence, structure pretrained, and TransHLA.
Figure 4: This figure displays the PCA-based 2-dimensional feature space distribution of HLA-I and HLA-II epitope presentation test sets. The space is split into 2 regions: region I for HLA-I epitopes and region II for HLA-II epitopes. Each region shows positive samples as blue dots and negative samples as red dots, with representations from various model embeddings (A–H), including random pattern, TextCNN, TextRCNN, RNN-ATTs, DPCNN, random initial, ESM2 pretrained sequence, structure pretrained, and TransHLA.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5: This comprehensive figure presents a series of violin plots illustrating the “helix content” structure property of peptides across various sample subsets for HLA-I and HLA-II molecules. Panel (A) delineates the helix content distribution in independent test samples for HLA-I, separated into positive and negative samples, with each subgroup’s statistical significance assessed via t-tests and annotated with corresponding P values. Panel (C) mirrors this setup for HLA-II independent test samples, highlighting the comparative helix content distributions. The external dataset distributions for HLA-I and HLA-II are respectively showcased in panels (B) and (D), emphasizing the metric’s external validity. Panels (E) and (F) delve deeper, contrasting the helix content of true positives and false negatives against true negatives and false positives within HLA-I and HLA-II datasets, respectively.
Figure 5: This comprehensive figure presents a series of violin plots illustrating the “helix content” structure property of peptides across various sample subsets for HLA-I and HLA-II molecules. Panel (A) delineates the helix content distribution in independent test samples for HLA-I, separated into positive and negative samples, with each subgroup’s statistical significance assessed via t-tests and annotated with corresponding P values. Panel (C) mirrors this setup for HLA-II independent test samples, highlighting the comparative helix content distributions. The external dataset distributions for HLA-I and HLA-II are respectively showcased in panels (B) and (D), emphasizing the metric’s external validity. Panels (E) and (F) delve deeper, contrasting the helix content of true positives and false negatives against true negatives and false positives within HLA-I and HLA-II datasets, respectively.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Lu, T., Wang, X., Nie, W., Huo, M., & Li, S.
Affiliations
  • City University of Hong Kong (HK)
  • Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong , Kowloon 999077 ,
ORCID
Venue
GigaScience
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2025
Volume
14
ISSN
2047-217X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1093/gigascience/giaf008
PMC
PMC11878767
OpenAlex
W4408141849
Cited by
10
References
7
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 5
FWCI
2.99
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • GigaScience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • CityU Scholars (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › vaccines and immunoinformatics approaches
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Machine Learning in Bioinformatics
  • Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotherapy and Immune Responses
Keywords
HLA class I, HLA class II, ESM-2 embeddings, immunogenic epitopes, neoantigens, vaccine design, immunotherapy, IEDB, cedar
MeSH terms
Alleles, Epitopes, HLA Antigens, Humans, Software, Antigen Presentation, Epitope Mapping, Computational Biology

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Lu, T., Wang, X., Nie, W., Huo, M., & Li, S. (2025). TransHLA: a Hybrid Transformer model for HLA-presented epitope detection. GigaScience. https://doi.org/10.1093/gigascience/giaf008