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Biochemical Verification of Tobacco Use and Abstinence: 2019 Update
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: The changing prevalence and patterns of tobacco use, the advent of novel nicotine delivery devices, and the development of new biomarkers prompted an update of the 2002 Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco (SRNT) report on whether and how to apply biomarker verification for tobacco use and abstinence. METHODS: The SRNT Treatment Research Network convened a group of investigators with expertise in tobacco biomarkers to update the recommendations of the 2002 SNRT Biochemical Verification Report. RESULTS: Biochemical verification of tobacco use and abstinence increases scientific rigor and is recommended in clinical trials of smoking cessation, when feasible. Sources, appropriate biospecimens, cutpoints, time of detection windows and analytic methods for carbon monoxide, cotinine (including over the counter tests), total nicotine equivalents, minor tobacco alkaloids, and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol are reviewed, as well as biochemical approaches to distinguishing cigarette smoking from use of electronic nicotine delivery devices (ENDS). CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations are provided for whether and how to use biochemical verification of tobacco use and abstinence. Guidelines are provided on which biomarkers to use, which biospecimens to use, optimal cutpoints, time windows to detection, and methodology for biochemical verifications. Use of combinations of biomarkers is recommended for assessment of ENDS use. IMPLICATIONS: Biochemical verification increases scientific rigor, but there are drawbacks that need to be assessed to determine whether the benefits of biochemical verification outweigh the costs, including the cost of the assays, the feasibility of sample collection, the ability to draw clear conclusions based on the duration of abstinence, and the variability of the assay within the study population. This paper provides updated recommendations from the 2002 SRNT report on whether and how to use biochemical markers in determining tobacco use and abstinence.
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“authors like Benowitz et al. (2020) and West et al. (2005) suggest that abstinence outcomes are also reliable in those studies in which biochemical verification is not feasible, such as those in which the data are collected by phone or through the internet or when personal contact is limited.”
From Evaluation of effectiveness and acceptability of a psychological treatment for smoking cessation combined with a smartphone App: A pilot study (2024) · cites this paper as Benowitz et al., 2020
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“The purpose of this study was to (1) determine the agreement between the mobile iCO (Bedfont Scientific Ltd) with two other monitors from the same manufacturer (Micro+ pro and Micro+ basic) and (2) determine optimal, monitor-specific, cotinineconfirmed abstinence cutoff values.”
BackgroundKrotter, A., Diego, G. A., Menéndez, A. G., González‐Roz, A., Secades‐Villa, R., & Pérez, Á. G. (2024) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100773 · Cited by 31
Meacham, M. C., Ramo, D. E., Prochaska, J. J., Maier, L. J., Delucchi, K., Kaur, M., & Satre, D. D. (2020) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2020.108211 · Cited by 23
Quigley, J. M., Walsh, C., Lee, C., Long, J., Kennelly, H., McCarthy, A., & Kavanagh, P. M. (2021) · Tobacco Prevention & Cessation · doi:10.18332/tpc/143077 · Cited by 23
Comparative Effectiveness of Postdischarge Smoking Cessation Interventions for Hospital Patients
Rigotti, N. A., Chang, Y., Davis, E. M., Regan, S., Levy, D. E., Ylioja, T. E., Kelley, J. H. K., Notier, A. E., Gilliam, K., Douaihy, A. B., et al. (2022) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2022.2300 · Cited by 24
Krishnan, N., Gu, J., & Abroms, L. C. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106676 · Cited by 23
Weng, X., Lau, O. S., Ng, C. H., Li, W. H. C., Lam, T. H., & Wang, M. P. (2022) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15804 · Cited by 19
Kale, D., Perski, O., Herbeć, A., Beard, E., & Shahab, L. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19020630 · Cited by 22
Effectiveness and Safety of Varenicline for Smoking Cessation: An Overview and Meta-analysis
Shang, X., Fenfen, E., Guo, K., Yang, C., Zhou, L., Wu, Y., Yang, K., & Li, X. (2023) · Journal of Addiction Medicine · doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000001171 · Cited by 22
Nahvi, S., Adams, T. R., Ning, Y. M., Zhang, C., & Arnsten, J. H. (2020) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15240 · Cited by 21
“Given recent recommendations (58), we evaluated abstinence using a <5 p.”
MethodDiego, G. A., González‐Roz, A., Krotter, A., Pérez, Á. G., & Secades‐Villa, R. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106920 · Cited by 20
Edwards, K. C., Naz, T., Stanton, C., Goniewicz, M., Hatsukami, D., Smith, D. M., Wang, L.-Q., Villanti, A., Pearson, J. L., Blount, B., et al. (2021) · Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-20-0997 · Cited by 11
“22,24,25 There is considerable genetic variability in CYP2A6 and UGT2B10 activity, with slow metabolism more common in Asians and African Americans.”
InfluentialShuter, J., Chander, G., Graham, A. L., Kim, R. S., & Stanton, C. A. (2022) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0000000000002936 · Cited by 21
Naughton, F., Hope, A., Brown, C., Grant, K., Barton, G., Notley, C. J., Mascolo, C., Coleman, T. J., Shepstone, L., Sutton, S. R., et al. (2023) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntad032 · Cited by 23
Marler, J. D., Fujii, C. A., Galanko, J. A., Balbierz, D. J., & Utley, D. S. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/25578 · Cited by 22
“Based on these study characteristics, biochemical verification was not pursued in accordance with previous recommendations [26,53].”
Coleman, T. J., Clark, E., Welch, C., Whitemore, R., Leonardi‐Bee, J., Cooper, S. E., Hewitt, C. E., Jones, M., Sutton, S. R., Watson, J. M., et al. (2021) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15715 · Cited by 20
“Biochemical validation was based on an exhaled CO reading with a cut-point of ≤ 9 p.p.m, and/or saliva cotinine (cut-point ≤ 10 ng/mL) or anabasine (cut-point ≤ 0.2 ng/mL) readings [31].”
InfluentialSchnall, R., Liu, J., Alvarez, G., Porras, T., Ganzhorn, S., Boerner, S., Huang, M.-C., Trujillo, P., & Cioe, P. A. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/28626 · Cited by 20
“…rigor, as both social norms relating to smoking behavior and an increasing number of personal factors (eg, age, pregnancy, hospitalization status, and socioeconomic status) are related to misreporting of smoking behavior. eCO is a useful assessment tool for measuring recent smoking abstinence [47].”
Villanti, A. C., Peasley‐Miklus, C., Cha, S., Schulz, J. A., Klemperer, E. M., LePine, S. E., West, J. C., Mays, D. M., Mermelstein, R. J., Higgins, S. T., et al. (2022) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107209 · Cited by 23
Colsoul, M., Goderniaux, N., Onorati, S., Dupuis, S., Jamart, J., Vanpee, D., Berlin, I., & Galanti, L. M. (2023) · European Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1111/eci.13996 · Cited by 20
Vickerman, K. A., Carpenter, K., Miles, L., Hsu, J. M., Watt, K. A., Brandon, T. H., Hart, J. T., Javitz, H. S., & Wagener, T. L. (2022) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntac129 · Cited by 19
Patten, C. A., Koller, K. R., Sinicrope, P. S., Prochaska, J. J., Young, C. D., Resnicow, K., Decker, P. A., Hughes, C. A., Merritt, Z. T., McConnell, C. R., et al. (2022) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntac221 · Cited by 20
“…follow-up assessment was defined as self-reported abstinence during the past 7 days (not even a puff), with salivary cotinine level 15 ng/ml. 38,39 At each follow-up, we assessed self-reported use of EBCTs including Alaska’s Tobacco Quitline, Tribal cessation programs, cessation assistance…”
MethodMarler, J. D., Fujii, C. A., Utley, M. T., Balbierz, D. J., Galanko, J. A., & Utley, D. S. (2022) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/41658 · Cited by 19
“However, these biomarkers require urine collection and chromatography–mass spectrometry measurement [59].”
BackgroundInterventions to prevent or cease electronic cigarette use in children and adolescents
Barnes, C., Turon, H., McCrabb, S., Hodder, R. K., Yoong, S. L., Stockings, E., Hall, A. E., Bialek, C., Morrison, J. L., & Wolfenden, L. (2023) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd015511.pub2 · Cited by 19
A Parental Smoking Cessation Intervention in the Pediatric Emergency Setting: A Randomized Trial
Mahabee‐Gittens, E. M., Ammerman, R. T., Khoury, J. C., Tabangin, M. E., Ding, L., Merianos, A. L., Stone, L., & Gordon, J. S. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17218151 · Cited by 19
Cytisinicline for Smoking Cessation
Rigotti, N. A., Benowitz, N. L., Prochaska, J. J., Rubinstein, M., Clarke, A., Blumenstein, B. A., Cain, D. F., & Jacobs, C. A. (2025) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2025.0628 · Cited by 24
Self-citationNollen, N. L., Cox, L. S., Mayo, M. S., Ellerbeck, E. F., & Ahluwalia, J. S. (2020) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.14948 · Cited by 18
Scherer, G., Pluym, N., & Scherer, M. (2021) · Contributions to Tobacco & Nicotine Research · doi:10.2478/cttr-2021-0014 · Cited by 18
von Weymarn, L. B., Lu, X., Thomson, N. M., Marchand, L. L., Park, S. L., & Murphy, S. E. (2023) · Chemical Research in Toxicology · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrestox.2c00413 · Cited by 18
Effectiveness of smoking cessation interventions among persons with cancer: A systematic review
Yingst, J. M., Carrillo, M., Chan, K., Choi, K. Y., Dao, J., Kulkarni, P., Bordner, C. R., Goyal, N., Foulds, J., & Bascom, R. (2023) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.6171 · Cited by 18
“Because it is known that self‐reported abstinence can be inaccurate, biochemical verification is important.(2,30) While some studies utilized biochemical verification via exhaled CO, studies used different cut points to measure abstinence.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationVidrine, J. I., Sutton, S. K., Wetter, D. W., Shih, Y. T., Ramondetta, L. M., Elting, L. S., Walker, J. L., Smith, K., Frank-Pearce, S. G., Li, Y., et al. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco.22.01228 · Cited by 17
“Exceptions were made for participants who exceeded this threshold but reported current use of NRT and/or e-cigarettes.(35,36) Individuals who had higher levels of cotinine or did not return the TABLE 1.”
BackgroundFinancial Incentives for Smoking Cessation Among Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Adults
Kendzor, D. E., Businelle, M. S., Frank-Pearce, S. G., Waring, J. J. C., Chen, S., Hébert, E. T., Swartz, M. D., Alexander, A. C., Sifat, M., Boozary, L. K., et al. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.18821 · Cited by 17
Guydish, J. R., Le, T. L., Hosakote, S., Straus, E. R., Wong, J., Martínez, C., & Delucchi, K. (2021) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108496 · Cited by 17
“More recent guidelines recommend a range of 5 – 6 ppm while commenting that higher cutoffs may be needed where environmental exposure is high (Benowitz et al., 2019).”
BackgroundCigan, S. S., Murphy, S. E., Stram, D. O., Hecht, S. S., Marchand, L. L., Stepanov, I. S., & Park, S. L. (2022) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-22-0569 · Cited by 16
Self-citationEvaluating N-acetylcysteine for early and end-of-treatment abstinence in adult cigarette smokers
McClure, E. A., Wahlquist, A. E., Tomko, R. L., Baker, N. L., Carpenter, M. J., Bradley, E., Cato, P. A., Gipson, C. D., & Gray, K. M. (2021) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108815 · Cited by 16
Metadata
- Authors
- Benowitz, N. L., Bernert, J. T., Foulds, J., Hecht, S. S., Jacob, P., Jarvis, M. J., Joseph, A., Oncken, C., & Piper, M. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- University College London (GB)
- University of Connecticut (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Corresponding author
- Benowitz, Neal L
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nicotine & Tobacco Research
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2019-10-01
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1086-1097
- ISSN
- 1462-2203 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-994X
- PMC
- PMC7882145
- OpenAlex
- W2978389675
- Cited by
- 619
- References
- 121
- Citations by year
- 2026: 99 · 2025: 84 · 2024: 107 · 2023: 103 · 2022: 87 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 6.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- academic.oup.com/journals/pages/open_access/funder_policies/chorus/standard_publication_model (vor)
- Locations
- Nicotine & Tobacco Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (CC999999)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Prenatal Substance Exposure Effects
- Keywords
- tobacco use, smoking abstinence, biomarkers, cotinine, carbon monoxide, electronic cigarettes, NNAL, biological specimen, detection window
- MeSH terms
- Cigarette Smoking, Carbon Monoxide, Cotinine, Humans, Nicotine, United States, Biomarkers, Smoking Cessation, Tobacco Products
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