Cited by 494Statistical Methods in EpidemiologyAdvanced Causal Inference TechniquesMeta-analysis and systematic reviews

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 21 of the 21 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Invited Commentary: Ecologic Studies—Biases, Misconceptions, and Counterexamples

Greenland, Sander, Robins, James·1994·American Journal of Epidemiology

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Many authors have pointed out that relative-risk estimates derived from ecologic data are vulnerable to biases not found in estimates derived from individual-level data. Nevertheless, biases in ecologic studies still are often dealt with in the same manner as biases in other observational studies, and so are not given adequate treatment. This commentary reviews and illustrates some of the more recent findings about bias in ecologic estimates. Special attention is given to problems of ecologic confounder control when individual risks follow a nonlinear model, and to misconceptions about ecologic bias that have appeared in the literature.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117069

Cites

21 of 21 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Ecological Correlations and the Behavior of Individuals
Robinson, W. S. (1950) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2087176 · Cited by 4,547
Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Misspecified Models
White, H. (1983) · Econometrica · doi:10.2307/1912004 · Cited by 3,705
THE ECOLOGICAL FALLACY
PIANTADOSI, S., Byar, D. P., & Green, S. B. (1988) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114892 · Cited by 863
Uses of ecologic analysis in epidemiologic research.
Morgenstern, H. (1982) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.72.12.1336 · Cited by 795
Cigarette smoking and bronchial carcinoma: dose and time relationships among regular smokers and lifelong non-smokers.
Doll, R., & Peto, R. (1978) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.32.4.303 · Cited by 698
Ecological Bias, Confounding, and Effect Modification
GREENLAND, S., & MORGENSTERN, H. (1989) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/18.1.269 · Cited by 540
Self-citation
A Rule for Inferring Individual-Level Relationships from Aggregate Data
Firebaugh, G. (1978) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2094779 · Cited by 393
Direct and Indirect Effects in Vaccine Efficacy and Effectiveness
Halloran, M. E., Haber, M., Longini, I. M., & Struchiner, C. J. (1991) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115884 · Cited by 297
Divergent biases in ecologic and individual‐level studies
Greenland, S. (1992) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4780110907 · Cited by 175
Self-citation
Difficulties with Regression Analyses of Age-Adjusted Rates
Rosenbaum, P. R., & Rubin, D. B. (1984) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2531396 · Cited by 154

Show all 21 references

Sorted by citations

Items 101–200 of 490

Alcohol abuse and suicide attempts among youth
Chatterji, P., Dave, D., Kaestner, R. J., & Markowitz, S. (2004) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2004.04.003 · Cited by 75
Taking the aggravation out of data aggregation: A conceptual guide to dealing with statistical issues related to the pooling of individual‐level observational data
Pollet, T. V., Stulp, G., Henzi, S. P., & Barrett, L. (2015) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.22405 · Cited by 75
An Evaluation of Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs
Simeone, R. S., & Holland, L. (2006) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e597562007-001 · Cited by 75
The Quality of Modern Cross-Sectional Ecologic Studies: A Bibliometric Review
Dufault, B., & Klar, N. S. (2011) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwr241 · Cited by 74
Combining ecological and individual variables to reduce confounding by indication:
Johnston, S. C. (2000) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/s0895-4356(00)00251-1 · Cited by 72
Late prematurity: a systematic review
Machado, L. C., Júnior, R. P., & Rosa, I. R. M. (2014) · Jornal de Pediatria · doi:10.1016/j.jped.2013.08.012 · Cited by 72
Ignorability and stability assumptions in neighborhood effects research
VanderWeele, T. J. (2007) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.3139 · Cited by 68
On being at higher risk: A qualitative study of prenatal screening for chromosomal anomalies
Heyman, B., Hundt, G. L., Sandall, J., Spencer, K., Williams, C., Grellier, R., & Pitson, L. (2005) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.10.018 · Cited by 67
Municipal socioeconomic status and mortality in Japan: sex and age differences, and trends in 1973–1998
Fukuda, Y., Nakamura, K., & Takano, T. (2004) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.04.012 · Cited by 67
Meta-regression Approaches
Morton, S. C., Adams, J., Suttorp, M. J., & Shekelle, P. (2004) · Cited by 65
The National Enhanced Cancer Surveillance System: a case-control approach to environment-related cancer surveillance in Canada
Johnson, K. C., Mao, Y., Argo, J., Dubois, S., Semenciw, R. M., & Lava, J. R. (1998) · Environmetrics · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-095x(199809/10)9:5 · Cited by 65
Recent trends in Canadian infant mortality rates: effect of changes in registration of live newborns weighing less than 500 g.
Joseph, K. S., & Kramer, M. S. (1996) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 65
HIV Treatment as Prevention: The Utility and Limitations of Ecological Observation
Smith, M. K., Powers, K. A., Muessig, K. E., Miller, W. C., & Cohen, M. S. (2012) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001260 · Cited by 64
Is the claim that ‘variance kills’ an ecological fallacy?
Davis, G. A. (2002) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/s0001-4575(01)00031-8 · Cited by 63
Air Pollution and Health: Correlation or Causality? The Case of the Relationship between Exposure to Particles and Cardiopulmonary Mortality
Dab, W., Ségala, C., Dor, F., Festy, B., Lameloise, P., Moullec, Y. L., Tertre, A. L., Médina, S., Quénel, P., Wallaert, B., et al. (2001) · Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association · doi:10.1080/10473289.2001.10464267 · Cited by 61
Insights on bias and information in group-level studies
Sheppard, L. A. (2003) · Biostatistics · doi:10.1093/biostatistics/4.2.265 · Cited by 60
Association of blood pressure in adolescence with birthweight
Pharoah, P. O. D., Stevenson, C. J., & West, C. (1998) · Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal & Neonatal · doi:10.1136/fn.79.2.f114 · Cited by 60
Heavy caffeine intake in pregnancy and sudden infant death syndrome Commentary
Ford, R. P. K., Schlüter, P. J., Mitchell, E., Taylor, B. J., Scragg, R. K. R., Stewart, A., the New Zealand Cot Death Study Group;, & OSMOND, C. (1998) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/adc.78.1.9 · Cited by 60
Occupational and environmental radiation and cancer
Jr. Boice John, D., & Lubin, J. H. (1997) · Cancer Causes & Control · doi:10.1023/a:1018496919324 · Cited by 59
Issues in the mapping of two diseases
Dabney, A. R., & Wakefield, J. C. (2005) · Statistical Methods in Medical Research · doi:10.1191/0962280205sm340oa · Cited by 59
Longitudinal associations of active commuting with body mass index
Mytton, O. T., Panter, J., & Ogilvie, D. (2016) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.06.014 · Cited by 58
Socio-economic and demographic predictors of accidental dwelling fire rates
Hastie, C., & Searle, R. (2016) · Fire Safety Journal · doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2016.07.002 · Cited by 57
A critique of statistical aspects of ecological studies in spatial epidemiology
Wakefield, J. C. (2004) · Environmental and Ecological Statistics · doi:10.1023/b:eest.0000011363.12720.38 · Cited by 55
Faecal soiling and gastrointestinal helminth infection in lambs
Broughan, J. M., & Wall, R. L. (2007) · International Journal for Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.03.009 · Cited by 55
Statistical Issues in Studies of the Long-Term Effects of Air Pollution: The Southern California Children’s Health Study
Berhane, K. T., Gauderman, W. J., Stram, D. O., & Thomas, D. C. (2004) · Statistical Science · doi:10.1214/088342304000000413 · Cited by 54
Impact of high electromagnetic field levels on childhood leukemia incidence
Teepen, J. C., & van Dijck, J. A. A. M. (2012) · International Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1002/ijc.27542 · Cited by 53
The Statistical Power of Epidemiological Studies Analyzing the Relationship between Exposure to Ionizing Radiation and Cancer, with Special Reference to Childhood Leukemia and Natural Background Radiation
Little, M. P., Wakeford, R., Lubin, J. H., & Kendall, G. M. (2010) · Radiation Research · doi:10.1667/rr2110.1 · Cited by 52
Prevalence of symptoms of asthma, rhinitis, and atopic eczema in Brazilian adolescents related to exposure to gaseous air pollutants and socioeconomic status.
Solé, D., Camelo‐Nunes, I. C., Wandalsen, N. F., Pastorino, A. C., Jacob, C. M. A., Gonzalez, C., Wandalsen, N. F., Filho, N. A. R., Fischer, G. B., & Naspitz, C. K. (2007) · PubMed · Cited by 51
Uses of Ecologic Studies in the Assessment of Intended Treatment Effects
Wen, S. W. (1999) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/s0895-4356(98)00136-x · Cited by 51
Spatial analysis of suicide mortality in Québec: Spatial clustering and area factor correlates
Ngui, A. N., Apparicio, P., Moltchanova, E. V., & Vasiliadis, H. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.07.033 · Cited by 50
Paranormal beliefs and cognitive function: A systematic review and assessment of study quality across four decades of research
Dean, C. E., Akhtar, S., Gale, T. M., Irvine, K., Grohmann, D., & Laws, K. R. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0267360 · Cited by 56
Geographic Variation in Health Care
Rosenthal, T. (2011) · Annual Review of Medicine · doi:10.1146/annurev-med-050710-134438 · Cited by 49
Estimation of Population Exposure in Ecological Studies
Plummer, M., & Clayton, D. G. (1996) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Statistical Methodology) · doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1996.tb02070.x · Cited by 49
The effect of random measurement error on receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves
Faraggi, D. (2000) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(20000115)19:1 · Cited by 70
Protective effect of breastfeeding: an ecologic study of Haemophilus influenzae meningitis and breastfeeding in a Swedish population
Silfverdal, S. (1999) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/28.1.152 · Cited by 48
Rural and Urban Differences in Mortality Among Americans 55 Years and Older: Analysis of the National Longitudinal Mortality Study
Smith, M. H., Anderson, R. T., Bradham, D. D., & Longino, C. F. (1995) · The Journal of Rural Health · doi:10.1111/j.1748-0361.1995.tb00425.x · Cited by 48
The Bayesian Modeling of Disease Risk in Relation to a Point Source
Wakefield, J. C., & Morris, S. E. (2001) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214501750332992 · Cited by 47
Is fluoride a risk factor for bone cancer? Small area analysis of osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma diagnosed among 0-49-year-olds in Great Britain, 1980-2005
Blakey, K., Feltbower, R. G., Parslow, R. C., James, P. W., Gómez‐Pozo, B., Stiller, C. A., Vincent, T. J., Norman, P. D., McKinney, P. A., Murphy, M. F. G., et al. (2014) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyt259 · Cited by 47
Gender inequality and the double burden of disease in low-income and middle-income countries: an ecological study
van der Ham, M., Bolijn, R., de Vries, A., Ponce, M. C., & van Valkengoed, I. G. M. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047388 · Cited by 46
Antimicrobial agent exposure and the emergence and spread of resistant microorganisms: issues associated with study design
Angebault, C., & Andremont, A. (2012) · European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1007/s10096-012-1795-3 · Cited by 49
Linking spatial data from different sources: the effects of change of support
Young, L. J., & Gotway, C. A. (2007) · Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment · doi:10.1007/s00477-007-0136-z · Cited by 46
On the Reliability and Precision of within- and between-Population Estimates of Relative Rate Parameters
Sheppard, L. A., & Prentice, R. L. (1995) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2532987 · Cited by 46
Disease mapping: a historical perspective
Walter, S. D. (2001) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198515326.003.0012 · Cited by 46
Neonatal outcomes of late preterm and early term birth
Machado, L. C., Passini, R., Rosa, I. R. M., & Carvalho, H. B. (2014) · European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2014.04.042 · Cited by 44
A comparison of methods for calculating general practice level socioeconomic deprivation.
Strong, M., Maheswaran, R., & Pearson, T. (2006) · International Journal of Health Geographics · doi:10.1186/1476-072x-5-29 · Cited by 44
Wide range of socioeconomic factors associated with mortality among cities in Japan
Fukuda, Y. (2004) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/dah205 · Cited by 44
Assessing United States County-Level Exposure for Research on Tropical Cyclones and Human Health
Anderson, G. B., Ferreri, J., Al‐Hamdan, M. Z., Crosson, W. L., Schumacher, A., Guikema, S. D., Quiring, S. M., Eddelbüttel, D., Yan, M., & Peng, R. D. (2020) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp6976 · Cited by 43
Mask use in community settings in the context of COVID-19: A systematic review of ecological data
Ford, N. P., Holmer, H. K., Chou, R., Villeneuve, P. J., Baller, A., Kerkhove, M. D. V., & Allegranzi, B. (2021) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101024 · Cited by 43
Linking health and environmental data in geographical analysis: It’s so much more than centroids
Young, L. J., Gotway, C. A., Yang, J., Kearney, G. D., & DuClos, C. (2009) · Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.sste.2009.07.008 · Cited by 42
'Circulatory Disease Risk', report of the independent Advisory Group on Ionising Radiation
McMillan, T. J., Bennett, M., Bridges, B. A., Hendry, J. H., Jones, B. R., Kanthou, C., Little, M. P., Taylor, A. M., Tzoulaki, I., Bouffler, S. D., et al. (2010) · White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 41
The Combination of Ecological and Case–Control Data
Haneuse, S., & Wakefield, A. J. C. (2008) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Statistical Methodology) · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9868.2007.00628.x · Cited by 42
Environmental associations with the risk of multiple sclerosis: the contribution of ecological studies
Lauer, K. (1995) · Acta Neurologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0404.1995.tb05861.x · Cited by 41
Somatization and multiple idiopathic physical symptoms: Relationship to traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder.
Engel, C. C. (2004) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10723-008 · Cited by 41
RE: "PARALLEL ANALYSES OF INDIVIDUAL AND ECOLOGIC DATA ON RESIDENTIAL RADON, COFACTORS, AND LUNG CANCER IN SWEDEN"
Cohen, B. L., Lagarde, F., & Pershagen, G. (2000) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/152.2.194 · Cited by 40
Multi-Level Determinants of Parasitic Fly Infection in Forest Passerines
Manzoli, D. E., Antoniazzi, L. R., Saravia, M., Silvestri, L., Rorhmann, D., & Beldoménico, P. M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067104 · Cited by 38
Misaligned Spatial Data
Gelfand, A. E. (2010) · Chapman & Hall/CRC interdisciplinary statistics series/Interdisciplinary statistics · doi:10.1201/9781420072884-c29 · Cited by 38
Ecologic Proxies for Household Income
Finkelstein, M. M. (2004) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/bf03405773 · Cited by 38
Assessing waterborne risks: an introduction
Craun, G. F., Calderon, R. L., & Wade, T. J. (2006) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2006.015 · Cited by 38
Designs for the Combination of Group- and Individual-level Data
Haneuse, S., & Bartell, S. M. (2011) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0b013e3182125cff · Cited by 37
Sources of bias in ecological studiesof non-rare events
Salway, R., & Wakefield, J. C. (2005) · Environmental and Ecological Statistics · doi:10.1007/s10651-005-1516-5 · Cited by 37
Hierarchical Models for Combining Ecological and Case–Control Data
Haneuse, S., & Wakefield, J. C. (2006) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.1541-0420.2006.00673.x · Cited by 37
Optical illusions from visual data analysis: Example of the New Zealand asthma mortality epidemic
Suissa, S., & Ernst, P. (1997) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/s0895-4356(97)00158-3 · Cited by 37
Ecological inference in the social sciences
Glynn, A., & Wakefield, J. (2009) · Statistical Methodology · doi:10.1016/j.stamet.2009.09.003 · Cited by 36
A review of studies of childhood cancer and natural background radiation
Kendall, G. M., Little, M. P., & Wakeford, R. (2021) · International Journal of Radiation Biology · doi:10.1080/09553002.2020.1867926 · Cited by 38
Socioeconomic deprivation independent of ethnicity increases status epilepticus risk
Chin, R., Neville, B. G. R., Peckham, C. S., Wade, A. M., Bedford, H. E., Scott, R. C., & for the NLSTEPSS Collaborative Group (2009) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01796.x · Cited by 36
An Agenda for Unemployment Research: A Challenge for Public Health
Hammarström, A., & Janlert, U. (2005) · International Journal of Health Services · doi:10.2190/e42r-t7cp-42pt-9jb1 · Cited by 36
Radon epidemiology and nuclear track detectors: Methods, results and perspectives
Bochicchio, F. (2005) · Radiation Measurements · doi:10.1016/j.radmeas.2005.04.027 · Cited by 36
Mortality and Cancer Incidence in Misasa, Japan, a Spa Area with Elevated Radon Levels
Ye, W., Sobue, T., Lee, V. S., Tanooka, H., Mifune, M., Suyama, A., Koga, T., Morishima, H., & Kondo, S. (1998) · Japanese Journal of Cancer Research · doi:10.1111/j.1349-7006.1998.tb00630.x · Cited by 36
Analysis of optimal control problems for the process of wastewater biological treatment
Grigorieva, E. V., Bondarenko, N. V., Khailov, E. N., & Korobeinikov, A. (2013) · Revista de Matemática Teoría y Aplicaciones · doi:10.15517/rmta.v20i2.11430 · Cited by 35
Influenza and Emergency Department Utilization by Elders
Schull, M. J., Mamdani, M., & Fang, J. (2005) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.2005.tb01953.x · Cited by 35
Finding Leading Indicators for Disease Outbreaks: Filtering, Cross-correlation, and Caveats
Bloom, R. M., Buckeridge, D. L., & Cheng, K. E. (2006) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1197/jamia.m2178 · Cited by 34
Understanding linkages between environmental risk factors and noncommunicable diseases—A review
Dhimal, M., Neupane, T., & Dhimal, M. L. (2021) · FASEB BioAdvances · doi:10.1096/fba.2020-00119 · Cited by 34
Deprivation, Ill-Health and the Ecological Fallacy
Lancaster, G., & Green, M. (2002) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (Statistics in Society) · doi:10.1111/1467-985x.00586 · Cited by 34
Chernobyl, childhood cancer, and chromosome 21
Boice, J. D., & Linet, M. S. (1994) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.309.6948.139 · Cited by 34
Associating quantitative behavioral traits with gene expression in the brain: searching for diamonds in the hay
Benaim, A. R., Yekutieli, D., Letwin, N. E., Elmer, G. I., Lee, N. H., Kafkafi, N., & Benjamini, Y. (2007) · Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btm300 · Cited by 33
The Rise of the Left and Working-Class Voting Behavior in New Zealand: New Methods
Fairburn, M., & Haslett, S. J. (2005) · The Journal of Interdisciplinary History · doi:10.1162/0022195043327408 · Cited by 32
Variation with socioeconomic status of indoor radon levels in Great Britain: The less affluent have less radon
Kendall, G. M., Miles, J. C. H., Rees, D., Wakeford, R., Bunch, K. J., Vincent, T. J., & Little, M. P. (2016) · Journal of Environmental Radioactivity · doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.07.001 · Cited by 31
On the Importance of Age‐Adjustment Methods in Ecological Studies of Social Determinants of Mortality
Milyo, J. D., & Mellor, J. M. (2003) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2003.00202.x · Cited by 31
Bias due to Aggregation of Individual Covariates in the Cox Regression Model
Abrahamowicz, M. (2004) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwh266 · Cited by 31
Testing Effects of Community Collaboration on Rates of Low Infant Birthweight at the County Level
Darnell, A. J., Barile, J. P., Weaver, S. R., Harper, C. R., Kuperminc, G. P., & Emshoff, J. G. (2012) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-012-9559-x · Cited by 30
Examining the evidence on the causal effect of HAART on transmission of HIV using the Bradford Hill criteria
Nosyk, B., Audoin, B., Beyrer, C., Cahn, P. E., Granich, R., Havlir, D. V., Katabira, E. T., Lange, J. M. A., Lima, V. D., Patterson, T. L., et al. (2013) · AIDS · doi:10.1097/qad.0b013e32835f1d68 · Cited by 30
Are environmental risk factors for current wheeze in the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) phase three due to reverse causation?
Silverwood, R. J., Rutter, C. E., Mitchell, E. A., Asher, M. I., García‐Marcos, L., Strachan, D. P., Pearce, N. E., & the ISAAC Phase Three Study Group (2018) · Clinical & Experimental Allergy · doi:10.1111/cea.13325 · Cited by 30
Geographical clustering of lung cancer in the province of Lecce, Italy: 1992–2001
Bilancia, M., & Fedespina, A. (2009) · International Journal of Health Geographics · doi:10.1186/1476-072x-8-40 · Cited by 30
Estudos Observacionais na Era da Medicina Baseada na Evidência: Breve Revisão Sobre a Sua Relevância, Taxonomia e Desenhos
Fronteira, I. (2013) · Acta Médica Portuguesa · doi:10.20344/amp.3975 · Cited by 30
Serum taurine and risk of coronary heart disease: a prospective, nested case–control study
Wójcik, O. P., Koenig, K. L., Zeleniuch‐Jacquotte, A., Pearte, C. A., Costa, M., & Chen, Y. (2012) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-011-0300-6 · Cited by 29
Overcoming Ecologic Bias using the Two-Phase Study Design
Wakefield, J., & Haneuse, S. (2008) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwm386 · Cited by 29
Simpson’s Paradox in Natural Resource Evaluation
Zee, Y. (2008) · Mathematical Geosciences · doi:10.1007/s11004-008-9187-z · Cited by 29
Bias and confounding in spatial epidemiology
Elliott, P., & Wakefield, J. C. (2001) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198515326.003.0005 · Cited by 29
Evolutionary fitness as a function of pubertal age in 22 subsistence-based traditional societies
Hochberg, Z., Gawlik, A., & Walker, R. S. (2011) · International Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology · doi:10.1186/1687-9856-2011-2 · Cited by 28
Vitamin D and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): rapid evidence review
Raisi‐Estabragh, Z., Martineau, A. R., Curtis, E. M., Moon, R. J., Darling, A. L., Lanham-New, S. A., Ward, K. A., Cooper, C. C., Munroe, P. B., Petersen, S. E., et al. (2021) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-021-01894-z · Cited by 28
Research methods in psychiatric epidemiology: an overview*
Jablensky, A. V. (2002) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.01035.x · Cited by 28
Interpreting meta‐regression: application to recent controversies in antidepressants’ efficacy
Petkova, E., Tarpey, T., Huang, L., & Deng, L. (2013) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.5766 · Cited by 28
Ambient air pollution as a risk factor for lung cancer
Cohen, A., Pope, C. A., & Speizer, F. E. (1997) · Salud Pública de México · doi:10.1590/s0036-36341997000400012 · Cited by 28
Time to address the spatiotemporal uncertainties in COVID-19 research: Concerns and challenges
Helbich, M., Browning, M. H. E. M., & Kwan, M. (2020) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142866 · Cited by 27
A hybrid model for reducing ecological bias
Salway, R., & Wakefield, J. C. (2007) · Biostatistics · doi:10.1093/biostatistics/kxm022 · Cited by 27
Are health inequalities increasing in Japan? The trends of 1955 to 2000.
Fukuda, Y., Nakao, H., Yahata, Y., & Imai, H. (2007) · PubMed · Cited by 27
Particulate Air Pollution and Daily Mortality: Who Is at Risk?
Goldberg, M. S. (1996) · Journal of Aerosol Medicine · doi:10.1089/jam.1996.9.43 · Cited by 27
Assessing socioeconomic effects on different sized populations: To weight or not to weight?
Frohlich, N., Carriere, K. C., Potvin, L., & Black, C. (2001) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.55.12.913 · Cited by 27
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake norms and preterm birth rate: a cross-sectional analysis of 184 countries
Ciesielski, T. H., Bartlett, J., & Williams, S. M. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027249 · Cited by 26
Emergency department use as a component of total ambulatory care: a population perspective.
Mustard, C., Kozyrskyj, A. L., Barer, M. L., & Sheps, S. S. (1998) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 26

Authors: Greenland, S., & Robins, J.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
Harvard University (US)
Corresponding author: Greenland, Sander
ORCID: Greenland, Sander
Robins, James
Venue: American Journal of Epidemiology
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 1994-04-15
Volume: 139
Issue: 8
Pages: 747-760
ISSN: 0002-9262 (ISSN-L)
1476-6256
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117069
OpenAlex: W2131305454
Cited by: 494
References: 21
Citations by year: 2026: 22 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 11
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5k04es000180-03)
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (R01AI032475)
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES000002, K04-ES00180)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Keywords: ecological study, relative risk estimation, confounder control, microdata, bias in observational studies
MeSH terms: Ecology, Epidemiologic Methods, Humans, Regression Analysis, Risk, Models, Statistical, Bias, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Invited Commentary: Ecologic Studies—Biases, Misconceptions, and Counterexamples

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks