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Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Dissociated Components of Executive Functioning
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STUDY OBJECTIVES: We studied the effects of sleep deprivation on executive functions using a task battery which included a modified Sternberg task, a probed recall task, and a phonemic verbal fluency task. These tasks were selected because they allow dissociation of some important executive processes from non-executive components of cognition. DESIGN: Subjects were randomized to a total sleep deprivation condition or a control condition. Performance on the executive functions task battery was assessed at baseline, after 51 h of total sleep deprivation (or no sleep deprivation in the control group), and following 2 nights of recovery sleep, at fixed time of day (11:00). Performance was also measured repeatedly throughout the experiment on a control task battery, for which the effects of total sleep deprivation had been documented in previously published studies. SETTING: Six consecutive days and nights in a controlled laboratory environment with continuous behavioral monitoring. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-three healthy adults (age range 22-38 y; 11 women). Twelve subjects were randomized to the sleep deprivation condition; the others were controls. RESULTS: Performance on the control task battery was considerably degraded during sleep deprivation. Overall performance on the modified Sternberg task also showed impairment during sleep deprivation, as compared to baseline and recovery and compared to controls. However, two dissociated components of executive functioning on this task--working memory scanning efficiency and resistance to proactive interference--were maintained at levels equivalent to baseline. On the probed recall task, resistance to proactive interference was also preserved. Executive aspects of performance on the phonemic verbal fluency task showed improvement during sleep deprivation, as did overall performance on this task. CONCLUSION: Sleep deprivation affected distinct components of cognitive processing differentially. Dissociated non-executive components of cognition in executive functions tasks were degraded by sleep deprivation, as was control task performance. However, the executive functions of working memory scanning efficiency and resistance to proactive interference were not significantly affected by sleep deprivation, nor were dissociated executive processes of phonemic verbal fluency performance. These results challenge the prevailing view that executive functions are especially vulnerable to sleep loss. Our findings also question the idea that impairment due to sleep deprivation is generic to cognitive processes subserved by attention.
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“The DSST is sensitive enough to distinguish changes over time between different sleep groups in sleep studies.”
From Digit Symbol Substitution Test: The Case for Sensitivity Over Specificity in Neuropsychological Testing (2018) · cites this paper as [39]
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“Tucker et al39 also measured the effect of sleep deprivation on DSST performance and yielded similar results.”
From Digit Symbol Substitution Test: The Case for Sensitivity Over Specificity in Neuropsychological Testing (2018) · cites this paper as [39]
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“For example, NREM stage one sleep is not as restorative as other sleep stages (Brinkman et al., 2023), thus an increase in this sleep stage in conjunction with decreased total sleep time will not sufficiently repay the sleep debt (Wesensten et al., 1999).”
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“In addition, the empirical research also confirmed that poor sleep quality also disrupts higher cognitive functions, such as attention and cognitive control, which are integral to executing emotion regulation (Tucker et al., 2010).”
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“As a prerequisite for various cognitive processes, attention is assumed to be the mechanism through which sleep loss impacts a wide range of cognitive performances [27]; not all attention-based cognitive processes are, however, equally affected by sleep loss [28].”
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“Inconsistent results were found on more complex executive functioning tasks (Aidman et al., 2019; Killgore et al., 2009; Tucker et al., 2010).”
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“SD impacts both overall performance and reaction time assessed with SMT and its modified version after short-term (Lim and Dinges, 2010) and long-term sleep deprivation (Tucker et al., 2010).”
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Executive functioning is preserved in healthy young adults under acute sleep restriction
Schaedler, T., Santos, J. S., Vincenzi, R. A., Pereira, S. I. R., & Louzada, F. M. (2018) · Sleep Science · doi:10.5935/1984-0063.20180029 · Cited by 13
“Sustained-attention, one of several cognitive elements used to execute an action, is more required in some executive functions tests than others and this cognitive domain is hardly deteriorated after sleep deprivation 49,50 .”
BackgroundFree Recall of Word Lists under Total Sleep Deprivation and after Recovery Sleep
Zanini, G. D. A. V., Tufik, S., Andersen, M. L., da Silva, R. C. M., Bueno, O. F. A., Rodrigues, C. C., & Pompéia, S. (2012) · SLEEP · doi:10.5665/sleep.1626 · Cited by 12
Grove, J. L., Smith, T. W., Carlson, S. E., Bryan, C. J., Crowell, S. E., Czajkowski, L. A., Williams, P., & Parkhurst, K. A. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.060 · Cited by 11
Hacking the functions of sleep: noninvasive approaches to stimulate sleep neurophysiology
Krugliakova, E., Breuer, F., Adelhöfer, N., Alonso, A., Besedovsky, L., Murphy, K. R., Peters, E., Raczek, K., Rasch, B., Salvesen, L., et al. (2025) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00007.2025 · Cited by 21
Takamino, A., Kotoda, M., Nakadate, Y., Hishiyama, S., Iijima, T., & Matsukawa, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.821425 · Cited by 10
“Sleep is an essential biological function that is crucial for normal cognitive, immune, and metabolic function and overall health (Alhola and Polo-Kantola, 2007; Walker, 2008; Tucker et al., 2010; Xie et al., 2013; Davies et al., 2014; Dzierzewski et al., 2018; Ni et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialSleep and Subjective Recovery in Amateur Trail Runners After the Ultra-Trail du Mont Blanc® (UTMB®)
Baron, P., Hermand, É., Elsworth-Edelsten, C., Pezé, T., Bourlois, V., Mauvieux, B., & Hurdiel, R. (2022) · Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1007/s42978-021-00154-w · Cited by 10
Dolan, M., Slavish, D. C., Weiss, N. H., & Contractor, A. A. (2023) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001631 · Cited by 11
“Specifically, sleep maintains higher-level cognitive functions, such as cognitive control (which encompasses executive functions such as reasoning, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility); this, in turn, influences adaptive emotion regulation (Mauss et al., 2013; Tucker et al., 2010).”
BackgroundTired and angry: Sleep, mental health, and workplace relational aggression
Osgood, J. M., Yates, H. K., Adler, A. B., Dyches, K. D., & Quartana, P. J. (2021) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995605.2021.1897490 · Cited by 10
Sleep, Circadian Rhythms, and Cognitive Dysfunction in Huntington’s Disease
Fitzgerald, E. S., Stout, J. C., Glikmann‐Johnston, Y., Anderson, C., & Jackson, M. L. (2023) · Journal of Huntington s Disease · doi:10.3233/jhd-230578 · Cited by 8
Nelson, M. J., Yu, D. A., Ha, A. V. H., Wakefield, M. R., & Fang, Y. (2025) · Clocks & Sleep · doi:10.3390/clockssleep7030029 · Cited by 10
“This has been shown to result in significantly decreased performance on Sternberg (memory) tests postoperatively [64].”
Bao, C., Wang, Y., Le, T. T., Xu, L., Tang, W., Zou, W., Bao, Y., Xu, D., & Zhao, K. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04976-6 · Cited by 10
“Healthy people with acute or chronic sleep disorders can also experience impaired cognitive function, especially executive control, including decision-making, working memory, and attention [25, 26].”
BackgroundPengaruh Shift Kerja Terhadap Kelelahan dan Performansi Pengendali Kereta Api Indonesia
Irianti, L. (2017) · Jurnal Rekayasa Sistem Industri · doi:10.26593/jrsi.v6i2.2656.79-92 · Cited by 8
Murthy, V., & Shukla, V. S. (2020) · Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice · doi:10.1055/s-0040-1703961 · Cited by 8
Schooltime subjective sleepiness and performance in Italian primary school children
Cerasuolo, M., Giganti, F., Conte, F., Costanzo, L. M., della Monica, C., Arzilli, C., Marchesano, R., Perrella, A., & Ficca, G. (2016) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2016.1178274 · Cited by 8
“This result represents a quite novel finding, encouraging to further investigate whether executive functions are more or less sensitive to circadian (hour of day) and homeostatic factors (which entail sleep loss) than alertness and sustained attention, which is still a matter of debate in the adult literature (Harriso…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialKishi, A., Dongen, H. P. A. V., Natelson, B. H., Bender, A. M., Palombini, L., Bittencourt, L., Tufik, S., Ayappa, I. A., & Rapoport, D. M. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175504 · Cited by 8
Self-citationAssessment of performance impairment after short naps with and without sleep inertia
Rosenbloom, T., & Grossman, E. (2018) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2017.10.001 · Cited by 9
Effects of Sensory Garments on Sleep of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Mische-Lawson, L., Foster, L., Hodges, M., Murphy, M. F., O'Neal, M., & Peters, L. (2022) · Occupational Therapy International · doi:10.1155/2022/2941655 · Cited by 12
“Sleep can also impact attention, executive functioning, and overall cognitive performance [20, 21].”
BackgroundSleep restriction and age effects on waking alpha EEG activity in adolescents
Campbell, I. G., Kim, E. I., Darchia, N., & Feinberg, I. (2022) · SLEEP Advances · doi:10.1093/sleepadvances/zpac015 · Cited by 7
Campbell, I. G., Zhang, Z. Y., & Grimm, K. J. (2023) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsad071 · Cited by 7
High-intensity physiological activation disrupts the neural signatures of conflict processing
Avancini, C., Ciria, L. F., Alameda, C., Palenciano, A. F., Canales‐Johnson, A., Bekinschtein, T. A., & Sanabria, D. (2024) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-024-06851-w · Cited by 7
“In particular, it has been shown that cognitive control (i.e., the ability to adaptively adjust cognitive processes to inhibit distracting information while maintaining task relevant information) is markedly impacted as the level of activation decreases 3,9 – 11 .”
Dynamics between Sleep and Self-Control
Hisler, G. C., & Križan, Z. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30628-1_7 · Cited by 7
Temporary amnesia from sleep loss: A framework for understanding consequences of sleep deprivation
Whitney, P. J., Kurinec, C. A., & Hinson, J. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1134757 · Cited by 7
“…on the accumulating evidence that the functioning of the hippocampus and associated MTL areas are disrupted by sleep deprivation in humans and in animal models (Tudor et al., 2016; Guttensen et al., 2023), it would be surprising if we did not observe significant effects of sleep loss on memory.”
BackgroundSelf-citationInstrumental learning: An animal model for sleep dependent memory enhancement
Leenaars, C. H. C., Girardi, C. E. N., Joosten, R. N. J. M. A., Lako, I. M., Ruimschotel, E., Hanegraaf, M. A. J., Demattéis, M., Feenstra, M. G. P., & Someren, E. J. W. V. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2013.04.003 · Cited by 6
Poor vigilance affects attentional orienting triggered by central uninformative gaze and arrow cues
Marotta, A., Martella, D., Maccari, L., Sebastiani, M., & Casagrande, M. (2014) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-014-0614-4 · Cited by 6
“Keywords Spatial attention Sleep deprivation Vigilance Gaze cue Arrow cue Emotional Stroop”
BackgroundResultDongen, H. P. A. V., & Belenky, G. L. (2010) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e625162011-001 · Cited by 6
Self-citationSeura, T., NAGAI, R., YAMAZAKI, S., BANDO, K., & Sogawa, M. (2025) · Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology · doi:10.3177/jnsv.71.339 · Cited by 5
Guo, Y., Cao, K., Zhang, Q., et al. (2026) · Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1007/s44197-025-00512-9 · Cited by 5
Zhang, D., Wang, R., Zhou, L., Zhou, K., Zuo, Z., & Sun, G. (2026) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.121769 · Cited by 6
Strobel, B. K., Schmidt, M. A., Harvey, D. O., & Davis, C. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2022.1052441 · Cited by 5
“, 2000), some aspects of executive functioning are preserved after SD (Harrison and Horne, 2000; Lim and Dinges, 2010; Tucker et al., 2010).”
BackgroundD’Angiulli, A., Byczynski, G., Yeh, W.-H., Garrett, G., Goldfield, G. S., Devenyi, P., Devenyi, T., & Leisman, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1022731 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Tucker, A. M., Whitney, P., Belenky, G., Hinson, J. M., & Van Dongen, H. P.
- Affiliations
- Washington State University Spokane (US)
- Washington State University (US)
- Venue
- SLEEP
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2010-01
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-57
- ISSN
- 0161-8105 (ISSN-L)
- 1550-9109
- PMC
- PMC2802247
- OpenAlex
- W1604504550
- Cited by
- 287
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 26.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- SLEEP (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research and Materiel Command
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Keywords
- sleep deprivation, executive function, proactive interference, phonemic fluency, Sternberg task, recovery sleep, attention, cognitive performance
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Association Learning, Attention, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Phonetics, Proactive Inhibition, Psychometrics, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Mental Recall, Serial Learning, Sleep Deprivation, Verbal Behavior, Wechsler Scales, Young Adult, Executive Function
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