Crow Dog’s Trial and Ledger Drawing: Cultural Production and Tribal Nation in the Maw of the American Empire

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Federal trial jury found Crow Dog guilty of the murder of Spotted Tail on March 24, 1882, and a week later Judge G. C. Moody sentenced him to death by hanging.

“The Federal trial jury found Crow Dog guilty of the murder of Spotted Tail on March 24, 1882, and a week later Judge G. C. Moody sentenced him to death by hanging.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Crow Dog stood trial and a jury found him guilty of murder in March 1882, culminating in the 1883 Supreme Court judgement in ex-parte Crow Dog.

“Crow Dog stood trial and a jury found him guilty of murder in March 1882, culminating in the 1883 Supreme Court judgement in ex-parte Crow Dog.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Aldine autograph album contains the X-marks of almost every Lakota witness that testified during the Crow Dog trial and the signatures of a significant number of the court officials, jurors, and others involved.

“In addition to numerous autographs of non-Native personages from Deadwood and beyond, the autograph album contains the X-marks of almost every Lakota witness that testified during the Crow Dog trial and the signatures of a significant number of the court officials, jurors, and others involved.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Black Hills Daily Times reported the arrest of Scares the Enemy on October 19, 1882.

“The Black Hills Daily Times reported the arrest of Scares the Enemy on October 19, 1882 in its familiar and droll, bantering tone”

• cites Black Hills Daily TimesNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Contemporary newspaper reports accurately record the events and statements they describe.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The small album containing Scares the Enemy's drawings contains ten drawings and a title page.

“It appeared for the first time in public in an episode of Antiques Roadshow produced in 2000 in Columbus, Ohio, and contains ten drawings and a title page.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Where Ex parte Crow Dog recognized the inherent right of tribes to govern their members unless overruled by an act of Congress, Oliphant argued that tribal incorporation into the United States implicitly extinguished their power to try non-Native citizens of the United States except in a manner acceptable to Congress.

“Where Ex parte Crow Dog recognized the inherent right of tribes to govern their members unless overruled by an act of Congress, Oliphant argued that tribal incorporation into the United States implicitly extinguished”

• cites [47]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Scares the Enemy does not appear in the Rosebud censuses, although he would most likely have set up his own household by then.

“Scares the Enemy does not appear, although he would most likely have set up his own household by then.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Carlisle became the model for the system of Indian boarding schools established for the subsequent sixty years until the passage of the Howard-Wheeler Act in 1934, part of John Collier's Indian New Deal.

“Carlisle became the model for the system of Indian boarding schools established for the subsequent sixty years until the passage of the Howard-Wheeler Act in 1934, part of John Collier's”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Hollow Horn Eagle also appears in the Rosebud Reservation census beginning in 1887 through 1907, living with his wife Pulls Her Down and a number of children who make up an extended household.

“He also appears in the Rosebud Reservation census beginning in 1887 through 1907, living with his wife Pulls Her Down and a number of children who make up an extended household.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

During the Crow Dog trial, local papers provided continuous reports on activities of government officials in reservation agencies, often with editorial commentary.

“Consequently, during the Crow Dog trial the local papers provided continuous reports on activities of the government officials in the reservation agencies, often with editorial commentary.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

He Dog fought as a Brulé warrior during the 1870s in most of the major battles resisting U.S. military and settler pressure against Plains Indian lifeways, including the Battle of the Little Bighorn/Greasy Grass that destroyed General Custer's command.

“He Dog (Figure 11) fought as a Brul e warrior during the 1870s in most of the major battles resisting U.S. military and settler pressure against Plains Indian lifeways, including the Battle of the Little Bighorn/Greasy Grass that destroyed General Custer's command.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

An appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court ended in overturning Crow Dog's conviction and an affirmation of the right of the Rosebud Agency Lakota to dispense their own justice in Ex parte Crow Dog.

“An appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court ended in overturning Crow Dog's conviction and an affirmation of the right of the Rosebud Agency Lakota to dispense their own justice in Ex parte Crow Dog.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

In Figure 12, He Dog depicts one of his earlier military exploits during a raid on the Pawnee, striking a woman with the non-lethal end of his crooked lance wrapped in otter hide.

“In Figure 12, He Dog depicts one of his earlier military exploits during a raid on the Pawnee, striking a woman with the non-lethal end of his crooked lance wrapped in otter hide.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The juxtaposition of neighborly cordiality appears in the two autograph albums, alongside racial animus reported at the same time in the daily press.

“The juxtaposition of neighborly cordiality also appears in the two autograph albums, alongside racial animus reported at the same time in the daily press.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The caption in Fales's handwriting identifies the event as the scene of a woman's death, using a common nineteenth-century racist term for Indigenous women.

“The caption, in Fales's handwriting, identifies the event as the scene of a woman's death, using a common nineteenth-century racist term for Indigenous women.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The trial in Deadwood resulted in the conviction of Crow Dog and the sentence of death by hanging.

“The trial in Deadwood resulted in the conviction of Crow Dog and the sentence of death by hanging.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

His father, Hollow Horn Eagle, appears in the press while in Deadwood to visit his son Scares the Enemy, Crow Dog, and the other Lakota prisoners.

“His father, Hollow Horn Eagle, appears in the press while in Deadwood to visit his son Scares the Enemy, Crow Dog, and the other Lakota prisoners.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Aldine drawing's details are close to the Adams House drawing and appear to be done in the same Lakota ledger drawing tradition and by the same hand, with slight simplifying variations.

“All of the details of the scene are quite close to the Adams House drawing and appear to be done in the same Lakota ledger drawing tradition and by the same hand, but with slight simplifying variations introduced in the process.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Scares the Enemy's drawing encapsulates the recent past of Lakota and Crow warriors racing their war ponies, a deeper past of accumulating spiritual power, and the future victory over the Crow warrior, rather than emphasizing linear historical time.

“Rather than emphasizing where in linear historical time this event takes place, Scares the Enemy's drawing encapsulates the recent past of Lakota and Crow warriors racing their war ponies up to this point, a deeper past of accumulating spiritual power that shows itself in the present moment, and the victory over the Crow warrior that will take place in the immediate future.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

A ledger drawing memorialized a specific and significant event achieved by the protagonist, communally validated by others in the band, and shared and subsequently recalled by the community through the image.

“On one hand, the drawing memorialized a specific and significant event achieved by the protagonist (not necessarily always the artist), communally validated by others in the band, and shared and subsequently recalled by the community through the image.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Scares the Enemy's drawing consciously depicts the moment that the spiritual and physical power he has accrued becomes manifest in his confrontation with the Crow warrior.

“On the other hand, in this drawing, Scares the Enemy consciously depicts the moment that the spiritual and physical power that he has accrued becomes manifest in his confrontation with the Crow warrior.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The drawings represent part of a pictorial tradition among many Plains Indian peoples, including pictographs, hide painting, and designs made using porcupine quills or beads on hide.

“The drawings represent part of a pictorial tradition among many Plains Indian peoples, including pictographs, hide painting, and designs made using porcupine quills or beads on hide.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Estella Billington's description of Crow Dog's drawing as depicting the moment Crow Dog killed Spotted Tail is erroneous; the warrior Crow Dog lances is Crow, not Lakota.

“Perusal of the Crow Dog drawing quickly exposes Estella Billington's erroneous description; the warrior that Crow Dog lances is not Lakota, but Crow, identified by his pompadour hairstyle swept back at the top, among other telling details.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The visual and oral meanings of Lakota ledger drawings can be reliably recovered and distinguished from settler annotations.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Striking an enemy with the non-business end of a weapon, or without one altogether, represented a most honorific war exploit.

“Striking the enemy with the non-business end of a weapon, or without one altogether, represented a most honorific war exploit.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

At the time of the Crow Dog trial, settlers and officials had developed a full-fledged practice of misrecognition of Lakota meaning in ledger drawings, a practice also employed in other contemporary interactions.

“At the time of the Crow Dog trial, settlers and officials had developed a full-fledged practice of misrecognition of Lakota meaning in ledger drawings, a practice also employed in other contemporary interactions.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

From the point of view of Bureau of Indian Affairs officials who engineered the trial, the goal was to wrest criminal jurisdiction from Indian governments on reservations.

“From the point of view of government officials in the Bureau of Indian Affairs who engineered the trial, the goal was to wrest criminal jurisdiction from Indian governments on reservations.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Since Spotted Tail's death took place on the Rosebud Reservation and both men belonged to the same band, actions to restore equilibrium and keep the peace took place following Lakota precepts and not according to the legal dictates of the U.S. justice system.

“Since the death of Spotted Tail took place on the Rosebud Reservation and both men belonged to the same band, actions to restore equilibrium and keep the peace took place following Lakota precepts and not according to the legal dictates of the U.S. justice system.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The 1882 trial of Crow Dog for the 1881 murder of Spotted Tail had the hallmarks of a twentieth- or twenty-first-century celebrity trial.

“The 1882 trial of Crow Dog (Kangi S u˛ka), for the murder in 1881 of Spotted Tail (Si˛t e Gle sk a), a leader of the Sicangu/Brul e Lakota, had all of the hallmarks of a twentieth-or twenty-first-century celebrity trial.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

With the Crow Dog trial over and the matter of Federal legal jurisdiction over reservations taken up by the Supreme Court, U.S. Attorney Hugh Caulfield and Dakota Territory agents and lawmen had no need of their prisoner.

“With the Crow Dog trial over and the matter of Federal legal jurisdiction over reservations taken up by the Supreme Court, U.S. Attorney Hugh Caulfield and Dakota Territory agents and lawmen had no need of their prisoner.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Fales at once characterized He Dog as uncivilized-in a past narrative of senseless murder, and of a defenseless woman-while simultaneously dismissing his claim as a leader by virtue of the power he manifested in battle.

“Fales at once characterized He Dog as uncivilized-in a past narrative of senseless murder, and of a defenseless woman-while simultaneously dismissing his claim as a leader by virtue of the power he manifested in battle.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Ledger drawings produced under these conditions far exceed those created at Fort Marion, both in duration and quantity, and their reception serves to illustrate the Native narrative voice as it becomes subject to processes of White appropriation.

“Ledger drawings produced under these conditions far exceed those created at Fort Marion, both in duration and quantity, and their reception serves to illustrate the Native narrative voice as it becomes subject to processes of White appropriation.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

In the main, their writings sought to revalorize Native philosophies and lifeways and, in doing so, humanize Indigenous people by appealing to settler moral and ethical norms.

“In the main, their writings sought to revalorize Native philosophies and lifeways and, in doing so, humanize Indigenous people by appealing to settler moral and ethical norms.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

The Fales-Freeman Brulé Ledger functions as a different form of autograph album.

“The Fales-Freeman Brul e Ledger simply functions as a different form of autograph album.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

As in the instances of the non-Native reception of the Lakota ledger drawings, misrecognition and resignification function as categories of the rumor of countersovereignty and produce similar results; in each case misrecognition elides Lakota expressions of immanent individual and communal power and works to replace them with United States colonial understandings of non-settler rationality withina

“As in the instances of the non-Native reception of the Lakota ledger drawings, misrecognition and resignification function as categories of the rumor of countersovereignty and produce similar results; in each case misrecognition elides Lakota expressions of immanent individual and communal power and works to replace them with United States colonial understandings of non-settler rationality within”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The imprisonment of Scares the Enemy, in the Lawrence County Jail on October 18, 1882, enmeshed him in a set of events emblematic of and constituent to the development of White American power during the late nineteenth century.

“The imprisonment of Scares the Enemy, in the Lawrence County Jail on October 18, 1882, enmeshed him in a set of events emblematic of and constituent to the development of White American power during the late nineteenth century.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Historically, the captivity of Plains Indian prisoners at Fort Marion holds significance as Pratt's experiment in civilizing and educating his charges for an American settler world, and Pratt's successful promotion of the results in order to extend the process, after the release of the prisoners, by founding the Carlisle Indian School.

“Historically, the captivity of Plains Indian prisoners at Fort Marion holds significance as Pratt's experiment in”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

He Dog intended to depict the moment of his power, a spatialization of time to make visible manifested power that humans cannot normally perceive.

“On the other hand, He Dog intended to depict the moment of his power, a spacialization of time to make visible manifested power that humans cannot normally perceive.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Beginning in the 1970s, recognition of ledger art as an example of yet another register of personhood foreclosed by settler possessiveness influenced the Native American artistic revival of ledger drawings as a contemporary response.

“By extension, beginning in the 1970s, recognition of ledger art as an example of yet another register of personhood foreclosed by settler possessiveness influenced the Native American artistic revival of ledger drawings as a contemporary response.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Karen Daniels Petersen published in 1971 a path-breaking and extremely influential study of ledger art.

“Karen Daniels Petersen published in 1971 a path-breaking and extremely influential study of ledger art.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

When Fales characterizes the coup as a foregone conclusion in death, she substitutes He Dog's narrative for another not of his making.

“When Fales characterizes the coup as a foregone conclusion in death, she substitutes He Dog's narrative for another not of his making.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Crow Dog's drawing insists on his true identity as a Brulé warrior and leader in front of his relations caught up in the trial, even as it becomes an appropriated X-mark in the hands of a White settler-colonial audience.

“Crow Dog's drawing insists on his true identity as a Brul e warrior and leader in front of his relations caught up in the trial, even as it becomes an appropriated X-mark in the hands of a White settler-colonial audience.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

All reports emphasize the large number of unreported cases of violence against Native women.

“All reports emphasize the large number of unreported cases of violence against Native women.”

• cites [48]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Fort Marion prisoners, warriors opposed to settler land encroachment and military enforcement, became war criminals without a trial.

“The Fort Marion prisoners, warriors opposed to settler land encroachment and military enforcement, became war criminals without a trial.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

As He Dog's power is ultimately validated by, and combined with, that of his companions and, more broadly still, his people, its dismissal as murder by Fales serves to erase Lakota authority in favor of settler sovereignty.

“As He Dog's power is ultimately validated by, and combined with, that of his companions and, more broadly still, his people, its dismissal as murder by Fales serves to erase Lakota authority in favor of settler sovereignty.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

He Dog's crooked lance signifies that he has earned status as a member of a prestigious Lakota warrior society, most likely the Iroka.

“He Dog's crooked lance signifies that he has earned status as a member of a prestigious Lakota warrior society, most likely the Iroka.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Crow Dog trial helps to identify two subgenres of Plains ledger drawing completed during captivity, in addition to the group of drawings produced in the singular circumstances of Fort Marion: drawings produced in jail or prison in proximity to a reservation; drawings commissioned by local non-Native patrons as keepsakes or mementos, often also related to Native captivity.

“The Crow Dog trial helps to identify two subgenres of Plains ledger drawing completed during captivity, in addition to the group of drawings produced in the singular circumstances of Fort Marion: drawings produced in jail or prison in proximity to a reservation; drawings commissioned by local non-Native patrons as keepsakes or mementos, often also related to Native captivity.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

He Dog does not depict the act of taking a life, but the moment of power that the Brulé warrior has been able to use, drawn from other-than-human forces in the world, to overwhelm his enemy during a time of danger.

“He Dog does not depict the act of taking a life, but the moment of power that the Brul e warrior has been able to use, drawn from other-than-human forces in the world, to overwhelm his enemy during a time of danger.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The significance of the ledger drawings produced around the Crow Dog trial in part lies in the manner in which they manifest the dynamic process of appropriation and resignification resulting in the practiced misrecognition of the Native voice taking place at Deadwood and similar places of habitual interaction between Native Americans and non-Natives.

“The significance of the ledger drawings produced around the Crow Dog trial in part lies in the manner in which they manifest the dynamic process of appropriation and resignification resulting in the practiced misrecognition of the Native voice taking place at Deadwood and similar places of habitual interaction between Native Americans and non-Natives.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

The incorporation of Crow Dog's drawing-autographs into settler albums documents the excitement, fascination, and characters brought to Deadwood by the trial.

“In a sense, the incorporation of Crow Dog's drawing-autographs into settler albums documents the excitement, fascination, and characters brought to Deadwood by the trial.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The drawings are removed from the realm of publicly validated exploits that confer status to Lakota men and made captive to a settler framework that rendered the Lakota narrative ambiguous and therefore ripe for interpretation and re-signification.

“In a sense, the drawings are removed from the realm of publicly validated exploits that confer status to Lakota men and made captive to a settler framework that rendered the Lakota narrative ambiguous and therefore ripe for interpretation and re-signification.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Since Petersen, scholars have advanced more complex interpretations of the drawings created at Fort Marion, attempting to balance the agency of the prisoners in relation to the Plains tradition of pictorial narrative with the regimen of forced acculturation envisioned by Pratt and the U.S. government supporters of his experiment.

“Since Petersen, scholars have advanced more complex interpretations of the drawings created at Fort Marion, attempting to balance the agency of the prisoners in relation to the Plains tradition of pictorial narrative with the regimen of forced acculturation envisioned by Pratt and the U.S. government supporters of his experiment.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The story of Scares the Enemy's imprisonment, and the conventions within ledger drawings as a genre, share a process of collapsing multiple pasts and presents into one current moment of Brulé Lakota representation.

“The story of Scares the Enemy's imprisonment, and the conventions within ledger drawings as a genre, share a process of collapsing multiple pasts and presents into one current moment of Brul e Lakota representation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

From this vantage point, drawings produced at Fort Marion, drawings done on the reservations after the U.S. Army ended freedom of movement for Plains tribes, and drawings created during periods of incarceration such as those produced around the Crow Dog trial, each represent a type of Captivity Ledger that results in a distinct narrative that serves to re-signify Indigenous voice and meaning.

“From this vantage point, drawings produced at Fort Marion, drawings done on the reservations after the U.S. Army ended freedom of movement for Plains tribes, and drawings created during periods of incarceration such as those produced around the Crow Dog trial, each represent a type of Captivity Ledger that results in a distinct narrative that serves to re-signify Indigenous voice and meaning.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

In this specific aspect, the ledger drawings produced in association with the Crow Dog trial follow the practice associated with the Fort Marion drawings.

“In this specific aspect, the ledger drawings produced in association with the Crow Dog trial follow the practice associated with the Fort Marion drawings.”

Borderline substantial claim. It is unclear why the paper says it holds.

The erasure of Indianness as a public policy parallels a much subtler appropriation taking place during the collection and display of the ledger drawings created around the spectacle of Crow Dog's trial.

“The erasure of Indianness as a public policy parallels a much subtler appropriation taking place during the collection and display of the ledger drawings created around the spectacle of Crow Dog's trial”

It may state two separate claims as one.

While its Lakota creators were not imprisoned, the project initiated by Fales owed its conception to the captivity and trial of Crow Dog and the spectacle that it produced.

“While its Lakota creators were not imprisoned, the project initiated by Fales owed its conception to the captivity and trial of Crow Dog and the spectacle that it produced, as evidenced by the X-marks of these same Lakota witnesses alongside Crow Dog's autograph album drawings.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

He Dog's ability to penetrate a Pawnee defensive perimeter set up to protect highly regarded women and children emphasizes He Dog's achievement.

“His ability to penetrate a Pawnee defensive perimeter set up to protect highly regarded women and children emphasizes He Dog's achievement.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

We have only another Captivity Ledger appropriation, a Brulé warrior dragged into a historical archive not intended to contain him, his ten drawings captured for settler-colonial re-signifying, or alternatively, ready to insist on Indigenous ways of being in time that disrupt settler temporal certainties.

“We have only another”