Cited by 385Advanced Causal Inference TechniquesStatistical Methods in EpidemiologyPhilosophy of Biology and Scientific Explanation

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Randomization, Statistics, and Causal Inference

Greenland, Sander·1990·Epidemiology

DOI 10.1097/00001648-199011000-00003

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Abstract

This paper reviews the role of statistics in causal inference. Special attention is given to the need for randomization to justify causal inferences from conventional statistics, and the need for random sampling to justify descriptive inferences. In most epidemiologic studies, randomization and random sampling play little or no role in the assembly of study cohorts. I therefore conclude that probabilistic interpretations of conventional statistics are rarely justified, and that such interpretations may encourage misinterpretation of nonrandomized studies. Possible remedies for this problem include deemphasizing inferential statistics in favor of data descriptors, and adopting statistical techniques based on more realistic probability models than those in common use.

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Modeling and variable selection in epidemiologic analysis
Greenland, S. (1989) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.79.3.340 · Cited by 2,208
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“The use of a random mechanism is the cornerstone of these trials and is the basis for statistical theory and analysis of these trials (Greenland, 1990).”
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“It is not clear what ‘expected by chance’ means if individuals were not randomly selected or randomly assigned to groups (Greenland, 1990).”
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Authors: Greenland, S.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
Corresponding author: Greenland, Sander
ORCID: Greenland, Sander
Venue: Epidemiology
Publisher: Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)
Published: 1990-11
Volume: 1
Issue: 6
Pages: 421-429
ISSN: 1044-3983 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1097/00001648-199011000-00003
OpenAlex: W2038826970
Cited by: 385
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 5.61
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy of Biology and Scientific Explanation
Keywords: causal inference, randomization, random sampling, statistical inference, data descriptors, probability models, epidemiological study design
MeSH terms: Bayes Theorem, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Epidemiologic Methods, Humans, Causality, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic

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